CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
- S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land” is one of the most popular poems of the 20th century. It is one of the epitomes of modern poetry. The poem was taken as a formal charge of the aftermath of the First World War that took place in 1914 to 1918. However, some scholars claim that the poem is condemning the immorality present in contemporary society. The poet highlights numerous pieces of evidence to show how after penance there is restoration. The poem is divided into five distinct parts which include burial of the dead, a game of chess, fire sermon, death by water, and what the thunder said (Bentley 9). The similarity and relationship of these parts of the poem are evident because of the themes they share. For instance, the theme of hope and despair is present throughout the poem. Other themes include spirituality, sexuality, and regeneration (Bentley 9). In many ways, the poem describes the degradation of the morals and values of society. However, it also shows some flashes of hope in its introduction lines as well as in its body despite the constant revelation of ideas of corrupt humanity. Nonetheless, T. S. Eliot depicts a senseless and gloomy world thus conveying to his readers the feelings of sorrow and despair (Eliot 10). However, T. S. Eliot suggests that there is still hope for a revival of the land if only people change their ways. In other words, the poet implies that from despair, sorrow, and death a new hope for regeneration and rebirth emerges. The poem, therefore, presents hope as its main themes. The following dissertation will examine the theme of hope vs. despair in T. S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land.”
Examining the works of different scholars who analysed The Waste Land by T. S. Eliot will provide insight regarding the main themes present in the poem. Most critics categorise the poem as melancholic since it overly focuses on portraying the world as deteriorated hence giving readers the feeling of sorrow and despair. These scholars, both early and recent ones, have had varying concepts regarding the poem The Waste Land by T. S. Eliot, and because of this, criticism took a life of its own as the critics consistently tried to give opinions of what the poem meant and represented. Many of the scholars presented compelling evidence to support their analysis hence earning The Waste Land recognition as one of the best poems ever written.
Among these scholars, Lawrence Rainey was an influential one. Rainey’s analysis of the poem was published in one of his books in 1998. His critics are stated in the chapter “Price of Modernism” (Thomas Stearns.20). He emphasized on analysing the poem from a historical approach rather than dwelling wholly on parsing the text of the poem. According to Rainey, critiques ought to focus on the climatic conditions of the poem during its conception and reception. In his Price of Modernism, Rainey interprets that the modern world has become a ‘wasteland’ that is infertile and cannot support life. Rainey blames the civilization for the current state of the world. The success of Rainey’s critics was achieved using a vast array of methods. For instance, he constantly maintains that the ‘Waste Land’ had no plot at all; he states that the poem does not exist in the borderland. Rainey wants to do away with new critical approaches so that the poem can only exist as a lyrical ferocity; this is evidence that he is not interested in new critical interpretations of the poem (Rainey 13).
F.R. Leavis is another scholar of T.S. Eliot “The Waste Land”; instead of just reviewing the poem, he used neoclassical ways to make interpretations. Leavis also use provocative and decisive methods but remained consistent in his analysis of the poem. Leavis’ steadfast analysis displayed his seriousness and also evidenced his ingenious methods of how he read and interpreted the poem. Leavis’ critic was among the reasons why the poem was classified as one of the “high modernist” class of poems. In 1933, Leavis claimed that the Waste Land poem was vital to literary history. In addition, Leavis has no problem with the poems fragmentation and disorganisation (Leavis 92). Instead, he regards it as a reflection of its origin. Leavis states that in the modern society, cultures, and traditions have been mixed. Therefore they are not organised at all; this resulted in the breakdown of beliefs and loss of absoluteness. For this reason, Leavis considers that the disorganisation of the poem mirrors a changed world; a world which has lost its innocence. In other words, he deems the modern world as an urban environment that has a negative light (Leavis 95).
Leavis’ critical legacy has been high because of the conservative bias he showcased when analysing Eliot’s poem. Leavis dwells so much on modernity and forgets about the literary analysis. For instance, he fixes himself to comparing objectives of the textual analysis. Leavis focused on analysing Teresias who is Eliot’s character in the poem. Further, due to Leavis’ Christian conservatism, he claimed that The Waste Land contains all historical consciousness (Leavis 96). Unfortunately for him as a critic, only provocative sentiments stick in people’s minds. However, Leavis is one of the most influential critics who discussed the chaotic form of the poem.
Cleanth Brooks is another ‘Waste Land’ critic and the father of current criticism. He is known for his explications of Christian myths. He has a great influence on how readers today perceive Eliot’s poem. Brooks expresses his moral standpoint of the poem in the introduction of his essay when he talks about good and evil. He supports it by quoting Eliot that it is in human nature to either choose good or evil. The Waste Land explains that man has lost his ability to discern between good or evil. (Brooks 106). The modern wasteland is viewed as a kingdom whose residents do not exist. Brooks sees the tangible ‘Wasteland’ of the poem as a representative of today’s world where people have different culture and beliefs. (Brooks, Cleanth.106)
Eliot integrated several themes into his work when developing this contemplative poem representing the two most crucial elements of the human being’s creation which are birth and death. For example, the poem has a touch of spirituality that mirrors the Christian belief of attainment of eternal life for those who remain holy. (Hysteria Winner, 132) Eliot uses symbolism in his poem to drive the theme of spirituality. He uses stories in the Bible such as the sacred cup of Jesus and the last supper. The poet says that only those with a pure heart will attain the Grail. The Grail is a unique symbol used by the poet to show that the wasteland is trying to revive itself, but its ruler keeps on failing it.
There are two kinds of people in this world despite other distinguishing aspects such as race, nationality, gender, age, and religion. The first group of people sees the glass as half full while the other as half empty. Those that see the glass as half empty are pessimists while those that see it as half full are optimists. I choose to be optimistic during the analysis of Eliot’s poem ‘The Waste Land”. Self-evaluation is an important process that people should embrace in their lifetime. However, many people do not perform self-evaluation hence they do not know if they are pessimist or optimist. A pessimist will think that they might die without living up to their life expectations. Eliot in his poem reveals that death is inevitable and that one should learn from those passed on before them and know they too will undergo a similar process of life and death. In my opinion, optimism is evident in this part of the poem since no matter the circumstances people find themselves in, they can still learn from the experiences of the past and improve the present. (Gordon, Lyndall. 430). The optimist will know that death cannot be evaded and therefore live a meaningful life. Eliot uses the topic of Phlebas’s death to discuss the issue of life and death. He says in his poem that whether you are a Gentile or a Jew, you should turn the wheel and move on with life; Eliot emphasizes that we should consider the Phlebas who was once handsome and tall but still died.
Fragmentation is one of the fundamental techniques that the poet used in his ‘The Waste Land’ poem. The title ‘Waste Land’ itself reveals fragmentation and illusion. We all know that fragments of anything come from something whole. In my interpretation, I view that despite the different cultures and traditions in the modern world, we are all bonded together by our community. The music in this poem shadows the overall construction of the poem. The poet employed the use of a variety of literary devices to show the sequence of disconnected or fragmented parts.
Water is used in this poem as a promise of rebirth. As mentioned earlier, one can look at a situation or an object in either a pessimistic or optimistic manner. Eliot uses water as a source of death when he talks of the drowning of the Phoenician sailor. However, water also signifies rebirth when the rain finally arrives at the near end of the poem. The coming of the rain means that after all the struggles there is hope for the continuation of life. Eliot further explains that there is hope for a better future after the cleansing of the sins. (Gordon, Lyndall 462). In other words, Eliot wants people to realize that a new future will commence when all the misdeeds are washed away. At the start of the poem Eliot uses April as the “cruellest month of the year.” (Gordon, Lyndall 463) However, what brings death also brings life. The seasons might fluctuate from extreme lows to extreme highs but, from history, we have learned that even though everything changes, a state of stasis is maintained. In Eliot’s poem, there is hope as the world waits for a new season.
Rebirth is also one of the significant elements and theme used in the poem. The subject is observed through several of the Christ images and religious metaphors used in the poem. The Fisher King cannot give birth, and the Waste Land is fallow. All that is required is a new dawn of new beginning. Since water which is expected to be a source of rebirth is also a cause of death, the poet turns to heaven. The Waste Land in the poem is neither dead nor living; it is constant. (Hysteria Winner 128). The poet, therefore, introduces the Grail imagery. The Grail is the Holy Chalice with the ability to bring back life by wiping out all the misdeeds and the slate clean. The poet also uses cleansing of sins in the rivers to signify the Christian practice of baptism; here, water and baptism are regarded as life-givers hence further revealing the theme of rebirth.
Death can also be viewed optimistically. The two poem sections; “The Burial of the Dead” and “Death by Water” used by the poet in his poem refers explicitly to the theme of death. Death can, in a complicated manner, mean life. (Hysteria Winner, 119) By viewing death in the sense of those who died long ago, then death paved the way for new lives. Furthermore, when Christ ‘died,’ he brought back humanity and gave way to a new life to begin. Later in the poem, Fire is used as a tool of redemption and purification. Eliot shows fire as a sign of life when he says Dante hid in the fire which refined him. Since fire can be ‘refining,’ the society gains hope that all cultural problems such as the corruption and hatred they have experienced might bring about good later on.
The poem at the end brings up the idea of the promise of hope; this promise confirms the theme of rebirth and restoration. Eliot states that it is possible to restore the wasteland to its former glory if only people are willing to. Eliot, however, emphasizes that restoration will be achieved only through suffering and penance. The poem is therefore not all about the inhuman actions and gloomy nature of the “wasteland,” but also rays of hope since after all, is said and done, regeneration of the wasteland is always possible. For instance, the kingdom that fell due to sexual immorality was restored, and the king redeemed of his actions. (Hysteria Winner, 135) We also see Philomena being transformed into a bird of a golden song. The poem makes a promise of forgiveness and redemption to those who repent their evil actions. The rain of divine grace symbolises the promise to be held out to those who will repent. The poet believes that the spiritual wound we are suffering from can still be addressed to make humanity better. Such redemption is possible only through spiritual and emotional enlightenment as well as making peace with our demons. The promise of restoration is fulfilled when the rain of divine grace is experienced. In his poem, Eliot affirms that the spiritual regeneration can come only if the voice of the thunder is heeded and that the thunder will give sympathy and control.
Eliot decided not to use the rural world of villages and upcountry as his setting in his poem. Instead, he used the modern city. This inspiration came to him while he was still a graduate when he encountered the works of Charles Baudelaire and Jules Laforge. Baudelaire in his work often wrote about the modern city. According to Baudelaire, society has turned the modern world into a wasteland incapable of supporting life. Baudelaire also recognizes that society has turned the world into a wasteland due to lack of spiritual enlightenment. However, the spiritual wound can be fixed by regaining the lost emotional and spiritual enlightenment. Eliot says that the Fisher King cannot give birth and that drought has stricken the land. However, he concludes by saying that arrival of pure-hearted stranger permits the world to become holy again.
In essence, The Waste Land is T.S. Eliot’s masterpiece. In his poem, he reveals the themes of war, death, and trauma. However, at the end of his poem, he affirms that there is light at the end of the tunnel. The poet uses different themes and techniques to develop his message and main points. For instance, despair is the most prevalent theme in the ‘Waste Land.’ It is because of despair that the poet turned to God for help. However, because of the high number of interpretations of the poem, it is vital that readers focus more on the emotional value of The Waste Land rather than its themes. David Moody, yet another critique, advocated that T.S. Eliot portrayed the basic values of optimism throughout his poem (Moody 13). As such, the following dissertation will critically analyse The Waste Land to highlight the emotion or theme of optimism as reflected in the poem.
Objectives of Dissertation
The objective of the research is:
- To evaluate how T.S. Eliot uses optimism and pessimism in the poem The Waste Land
- To demonstrate how the themes of sorrow and death in the poem signify resurrection and re-birth.
- To determine how the gloomy and fragmented representation of the wasteland is indeed an underlying message of hope through regeneration and rebirth.
- To establish how the historical allusions and myths used in the poem enhance the themes of rebirth and restoration
- To analyse how the five elements are used in The Waste Land to signify life hence promoting the theme of regeneration.
- To demonstrate how in its essence The Waste Land is indicative of optimism.
Research Questions
Based on the objectives of the dissertation, the research questions that will guide this dissertation are as follows;
- What amount of hope and optimism does the poet convey to readers of The Waste Land?
- What is the role played by historical and mythical allusions used in The Waste Land?
- What are the stylistic devices and literary allusions used to achieve the unified shape of the poem?
- What elements does the poet use to signify the regeneration of the gloomy land described in The Waste Land?
The Structure of the Report
The dissertation will follow the following structure;
Chapter 1: Introduction and background information regarding The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot.
- Literature review: A description of different aspects of the poem including the significance of specific symbols, historical figures and mythical allusions. This chapter will also include critiques by different scholars of the poem.
- Research methods: The chapter provides a discussion of the methods employed to answer the research questions posed in the dissertation.
Chapter 2: The second chapter evaluates T. S. Eliot’s poem as a modernist one and how it contributed to modern poetry.
Chapter 3: The third chapter will discuss how the myths and allusions used in the poem signify Redemption and Rebirth.
Chapter 4: The fourth chapter describes the City as a Centre for hope amidst the fragmented world described by the poet.
Chapter 5: The fifth chapter evaluates how T. S. Eliot highlights a Herald for Optimism in the Waste Land poem.
Chapter 6: The seventh chapter is the conclusion
METHODS
The method used is the most critical part of the dissertation since it helps answer the research question and meet the objectives of the research. Given the nature of the discourse, a review of the literature was chosen as the method to help answer the research questions posed in the discussion. This dissertation is qualitative in nature hence similar data was required; a literature review is the best method to retrieve qualitative data. However, the complex nature of the research questions guiding this dissertation demands a thorough and sophisticated review of the literature. Such a rigorous literature review will act as a foundation for a reliable research study. Moreover, there are several benefits of performing quality literature reviews such as the following: helps identify information that is relevant to the research question, allows the researcher to avoid unintentional replication of research, identify research methods that have been used previously and identify any inconsistencies in previous studies (Onwuegbuzie 1). Therefore, a thorough literature review was used as the primary method of answering the research questions and meeting the objectives of the dissertation.
Introduction
Most people have the impression that the writing of a literature review is not complicated; this concept is, however, misleading since the literature review process is more than just the summarizing of texts. The literature review process is defined as a complicated process entailing the interpretation of documents published by different authors on a specific topic. Basically, the process involves the summarization and analysis as well as the synthesis of the information in the text and how it relates to the research question. The article by Onwuegbuzie defines literature review as the logically presented argument based on comprehensive evaluation and understanding of a topic; this argument provides a convincing case to answer the research questions posed in a study. Another definition is that literary analysis is the breaking down of whole text into its constituent parts; further, the assembly of these part s enables a more holistic understanding of the entire text (Onwuegbuzie 3). The literature review technique, therefore, lends itself as the appropriate qualitative technique to use for this dissertation. With this in mind, the purpose of the following section is to provide a description of how literature was selected and analyzed to come up with interpretations relevant to the research questions of the study.
Despite the complexity of the literature review process, most dissertations only dedicate one chapter to the process. According to recent studies, authors ought to devote more chapters to the literature review process to capture the critical aspect of conducting a comprehensive literature review (Onwuegbuzie 2). Encouragingly, more authors are beginning to include more chapters dedicated to the literature review section of their dissertations. In an attempt to elucidate the process of writing an extensive literature review, authors have published books detailing step by step the process of writing a quality literature review that captures all the interpretive aspects of the section in the dissertation.
Initially, scholars suggested six simple steps to conducting a quality literature review. Defining the research question was the first step followed by searching for relevant sources of information. The Third step was selecting general reports to use as references while the fourth was the formulation of search terms to facilitate the collection of information pertinent to the subject under investigation. The fifth step is to search the general reports for articles with useful information. The final step is obtaining the information from the chosen sources and analysing it to come up with key points in relation to the thesis. However, these steps are misleading since quality literature review is more than just the collection and summarizing of secondary sources (Onwuegbuzie 2).
A good qualitative literature review should give its reader a complete picture what is known and not known about a topic. The literature review should provide information regarding any inferences that have become apparent following recent studies as well as the implications of the said inferences. The review of literature should also identify the weaknesses and strengths of previous research; such information enables future researchers to select the most appropriate method that is free from the weaknesses that affected prior studies. Below are the steps that will be taken in conducting this research; the rationale behind every method is also given.
Methodology Employed
The first step before anything else involved establishing the scope of the literature review. The reach of the dissertation was set by the research questions and objectives in the introduction section of the discourse. Based on the research questions, the main purpose of the report was to show optimism in the poem despite the common perception that the poem is pessimistic. Scoping, as part of the literature review process, helped in the maintenance of a vivid idea of what sort of information was relevant to the study in general. In this way, scoping helped avoid energy and time wastage while searching for information.
The second step was planning; this involved breaking down the research questions into simple concepts to facilitate the process of searching. Simplified research questions helped in the formulation of search terms that were later used in data collection. Some of the search terms suggested in the planning stage include; mythical allusion, hope, regeneration, symbolism, religious allusion, desolation, death, fragmentation, and despair. Each of the terms was searched against the words “the wasteland poem by T. S. Eliot.” The rationale behind the planning step was to allow for the collection of only data relevant to the dissertation’s general topic. The planning stage also laid out preliminary exclusion and inclusion criteria for articles into the study. Only those studies that met the inclusion criteria were included in the dissertation. The inclusion criteria were all peer-reviewed articles critiquing Eliot’s poem ‘The Wasteland.’ Articles that did not talk about this specific poem were excluded from the study. The final part of the planning stage involved the creation of a record keeping system to track the identified documents as well as the decision-making process used to pick the article. The record keeping system used was a Microsoft word since it was easy writing down the topics of the chosen articles in the document.
Step three was the actual search process to identify the articles that were included in the report. The search terms formulated in step two were used to explore electronic databases. The articles found were judged based solely on their title; the articles were also briefly inspected to ascertain that they met the inclusion criteria of peer-reviewed articles only. All the relevant articles were recorded in Microsoft Word. Step four involved further screening of the identified articles. The articles chosen in step three were too many hence the purpose of step four was to get rid of articles with similar information and also to identify articles with the most relevant information. Step three involved brief scrutiny of each article; in contrast, step four entailed a thorough analysis of each article to decide whether it was worth inclusion in the dissertation. Therefore, in stage four, we had to read each abstract in its entirety to make sure that the article met the inclusion criteria strictly. Articles with relevant information were noted down in another Word document. The rationale behind step three and four was to facilitate the collection of sufficient data to answer the questions of our research. In other words, stages three and four were sensitive steps put in place to ascertain that as many potentially eligible articles were identified.
The fifth step involved further scrutiny of articles identified; instead of reading only the abstract, step five emphasized on sifting through the full-text versions of the articles identified. In contrast to previous stages, step five was specific rather than sensitive; in other words, the aim of this step was to see how suitable each of the eligible articles was to the general topic of the dissertation. The step helped to significantly reduce the huge pool of articles picked in the previous stages. All the articles that passed this stage were included in the dissertation.
Articles Chosen for the dissertation
| Author | Title | Type |
| Eliot, Thomas Stearns | The Waste Land | Primary Source |
| Lawrence Rainy | The Annotated Waste Land with Eliot’s Contemporary Prose | Secondary source |
| Brooker and Bentley | “The Waste Land”: Modernism and the Limits of Interpretation | Secondary source |
| Michael North | The Waste Land | Secondary source |
The final step concerned itself with the analysis of the articles chosen for inclusion in the study. The research questions posed at the beginning of the study were used to guide the process of analysis. The analysis was done based on specific subjects including that of fragmentation, desolation, regeneration, and optimism. The analysis also took into account topics such as the basic structure of the poem including stylistic devices used as well as the themes incorporated into the poem’s structure. A within-study and between-study textual analysis were used in this stage. A within-study analysis is where the researcher focuses on the contents of a specific article. The analysis is rigorous, and it does analyze not only the basic concepts of the book but also other concepts such as the title, theme, and styles used to develop the writings. In contrast, the between-study analysis focuses on comparing information from multiple sources (Onwuegbuzie 5). Both types of analysis should be performed together except on infrequent occasions when only one book is analyzed in the literature review section.
Further, the literature review was organized into multiple chapters; each chapter detailed a specific topic that was part of the general concept explored in the dissertation. The rationale behind this step was to ascertain that literature review was ideally rigorous. The term rigorous, in this case, refers to a literature review that is comprehensive, transparent and warranted. Research best practices require that all reports are consistent with the three tenets mentioned above. By transparent, scholars mean that reports should follow the logic of inquiry that leads to answers through the proper use of data collection and analysis. Quality research should also be warranted; this means that is should be based on proper evidence that will justify the conclusions made. Finally, by comprehensive, researchers mean that the literature review should provide a clear picture of the problem at hand and how it has been addressed in the past. Organizing the literature review into several chapters, therefore, enabled the dissertation to meet the qualities of being warranted, comprehensive and transparent.
Following the analysis of literature was a concluding chapter that revisited the main aims of the paper. The conclusion chapter described whether the dissertation met the objectives of the study and how it was achieved. The concluding chapter also included a brief summary of the main points of the paper. Other than that, the chapter offers concluding thoughts on the general topic of the dissertation which is the theme of optimism in the poem. In addition, the chapter highlights some of the limitations encountered in the study as well as recommendations for future research.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
As earlier mentioned, critiques and scholars have been engaging in much debate regarding the underlying meanings concealed in T.S. Eliot’s poem; The Waste Land. These Scholars agree that critiques ought to analyse literary works according to their context as well as the respective background. Having been published in 1922, “The Waste Land” falls in the “Georgian poetry” era when King George V ruled England. Poets in this era reflected traditional and Victorian interpretations of nature in their poems; also, their poems were developed around rural settings. As such, Georgian poets were confined to the limits of traditional poetic form and content despite the fact that they were living in a modern era. Georgian poetry did not, therefore, reflect the modern era. Poets like T. S. Eliot were among the first to engrain a new style of poetry into their poems. T. S. Eliot wrote several influential poems in his lifetime which earned him recognition in literature. For his great poetic innovations, Eliot was given the 1948 Nobel Prize in Literature. It is therefore of importance we first understand the life and other works of T. S. Eliot before embarking on a critical analysis of “The Waste Land.”
T. S. Eliot a Biography
Thomas Stearns “T.S.” Eliot was born in 1888 in Missouri though his family was originally from England. He began writing short stories and poems from an early age, and as it turned out, writing occupied the rest of his life. He went to Harvard University where he graduated with a Bachelors’ Degree in Arts. While in Harvard, Eliot was influenced by professors dealing with different disciplines including philosophy, poetry, and literary criticism. (Sharpe 9). These three disciplines had the most influence on Eliot’s career in poetry. After graduating, Eliot traveled to other parts of the world to deepen his knowledge in different disciplines; he focused more on philosophy which is evident in most of his poems. (Sharpe 13). In fact, Eliot went back to Harvard where he advanced his knowledge of Indian philosophy and graduated with an advanced degree. Unfortunately, Eliot was unable to continue his education due to the onset of the First-Word War. He married and took up a job as a teacher and later as a bank clerk up until 1925 when he joined a publishing house where he spent the rest of his career.
T. S. Eliot poetry
The first of Eliot’s most important works was “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,” published in 1915. The second widely acknowledged work was “Prufrock and Other Observations” which was a book of poems published in 1917; this collection of poems earned Eliot recognition as one of the leading poets of his time. Eliot continued to work on other poems as he tended to his day job as a bank clerk. Eliot also wrote reviews and literary criticism when he was working as a bank clerk (Worthen 3). His work in the field of criticism also earned Eliot respect.
Other early poems by Eliot include “Gerontion” and “The Waste Land” which were unlike anything ever seen before in the English poetry. “Gerontion” was a blank and dramatic monologue; the main character was an elderly or rather a gerontic man who was describing the effects of the First World War on Europe (Worthen 4). Never before had a poet written such an original poem in the English language. As if that was not enough, “The Waste Land” was published in 1922. “The Waste Land” was another one of a kind poem describing the disillusionment present after the world war.
The “The Waste Land” became Eliot’s most famous poem. It gained a cult-like following from admirers all over the world and from all literary corners (Worthen 5). The poem became labelled as one of the most influential works of literature in the 20th century. Eliot founded a literary journal the same year he published “The Waste Land.” The journal, known as Criterion became an influential literary journal and Eliot was responsible for editing the journal throughout the entire period of its publication (Bloom 26). Two years after founding the journal, Eliot left his job in the bank and joined a publishing house where he mentored and guided the writings of many young poets.
Eliot became a British citizen in 1927 and continued writing several more influential works of poetry including “Ash Wednesday” which was published in 1930 and “Four Quartets” published in 1943. Apart from poetry, Eliot also ventured into criticism and published works such as “The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism” and “Notes towards the Definition of Culture.” In summary, Eliot had a vast influence not only in poetry but also in criticism, and for his contributions he received various awards including the Nobel Prize and the Order of Merit.
People who influenced Eliot’s work
Eliot’s poetry was influenced by various poets, critics, and philosophers whom he met during his career as a poet. Examples of men who influenced Eliot’s style of poetry include Irvin Babbitt and George Santayana whom he met while studying at Harvard (Bloom 10). George Santayana was a philosopher as well as a poet; his works in philosophy and literary criticism earned him an avalanche of admirers from all over the world. Irvin Babbitt taught French and literature at Harvard during the time Eliot was studying. Irvin was a critic renowned for starting the literary criticism movement known as Neo-humanism (Bloom 11). He was a champion for anti-romanticism, and often he critiqued romanticism. It was from Irvin that Eliot derived his anti-romanticism attitude. Eliot’s anti-romanticism attitude was enhanced by his later reading of the works of different British philosophers including T.E Hulme and F.H. Bradley.
There is a list of many poets and philosophers who influenced Eliot and helped him find his style as a poet. Some of them include Jules Laforgue, Charles Baudelaire and Ezra pound (Bloom 13). Jules Laforgue was a French symbolist who was one of the pioneers of the “free verse” style of writing poems. The impact of Jules Laforgue’s work was felt by several poets of the 20th century including T.S. Eliot. Ezra Pound was a poet, a critic as well as an entrepreneur who helped advance the modernist movement in English literature. Pound published the works of several writers; he also promoted and occasionally helped to shape the works of several writers including T.S. Eliot (Bloom 43). Charles Baudelaire was a French poet and also an advocate for romanticism; he published various influential yet controversial works of art that earned him recognition as an avant-garde poet.
The influence of Charles Baudelaire on Eliot is most prominent in the poem “The Waste Land.” Baudelaire was well-known for including various aspects of the modern world into his poems; for instance, he often alluded to the metropolis and city life in his poems. The usual practice in the early 20th century was in contrast to Baudelaire’s practice since most poets used metaphors and imagery from the rural setting (Baudelaire 134). In Baudelaire’s poems, one could find not only new metaphors and imagery by also an entirely new set of city language. In fact, poems by Baudelaire enabled readers to explore the life of city dwellers. T.S. Eliot found the style and content used in Baudelaire’s poems quite impressive. He incorporated most of these styles into his poems hence opening the door for other new poets to deviate from the traditional and rigid styles of poetry. Eliot included several new techniques such as juxtaposition into his poetry, particularly in “The Waste Land,” thus making Eliot one of the first modernist poets (Alhaj 4).
Ezra Pound also had a profound influence on Eliot’s poetry given that he took Eliot in as one of his students. Ezra Pound was an aggressive entrepreneur engaging in the printing industry; Pound was also a great poet who was determined to change the poetic art scene in Europe. Ezra pound contributed greatly to developing the modern literary environment through his own work and also by influencing other great poets such as T. S. Eliot. The influence of Ezra pound on Eliot was so much that recent critics often link these two men as the founders of the modernist movement in poetry (Stough 1). Ezra and Eliot used not so popular techniques of poetry that later dominated the 1930s-40s. The new techniques eventually displaced the majority of the techniques that were prevalent in the early 1900s (1901-1920).
In 1914, a shy fresh graduate from Harvard, Eliot, came to seek out Ezra Pound in London (Gordon 67). Eliot was acting based on advice from a friend who informed him that Pound was the right guy for Eliot to use to get his poems in print. Their meeting and consecutive interactions became one of the most, if not the most, indispensable literary relationships of the modern world (Stough 8). Pound was, at the time, considered a letter writer for a small magazine known as ‘Poetry’; Pound had earned the position of a correspondent due to his work including founding the Imagism school of poetry. Imagism laid emphasis on skilfulness as well as fidelity when composing poems (Stough 8). Pound had also authored exemplary publications including Personae and Exultations in 1909, Canzoni in 1911 and Ripostes in 1912. Eliot read Personae and Exultations while at Harvard; he liked Pound’s work and described it as a traditional, fancy and romantic poetic art (Hall 95).
Eliot had wanted to pursue philosophy, but following Pound’s advice, he decided to pursue poetry instead (Gordon 67). Pound had recognized Eliot’s genius in poetry and decided to print his work into the Poetry magazine. Pound secured some pages in the magazine where he published ‘The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’; this was the first significant contribution of Pound to Eliot’s growth. Securing the publication was an action that boosted Eliot’s poetry to greater heights; the publication is deemed only second in importance to Pound’s editorial work on ‘The Wasteland.’ Eliot sought Pound’s assistance when writing ‘The Wasteland’; pound changes several things within the poem including deleting entire sections from Eliot’s rough draft (Stough 8). The final document was hence a reflection of both the visions of Eliot and Ezra. It is, therefore, safe to say that Ezra Pound discovered Eliot and worked hard to Nurse Eliot’s art of poetry; Eliot gained a good reputation due to Pound’s efforts, which Eliot later reciprocated by dedicating his poem to Ezra Pound.
Introduction to the poem “The Waste Land”
T.S. Eliot uses the term “wasteland” to refer to a generation of people who have lost their ability to contribute towards the continuation of life; in other words, the term refers to a civilisation that has become infertile. The people have lost their ability to contribute towards life because they are suffering from spiritual and mental wounds. These wounds need healing to enable the current civilisation to progress hence promoting the continuation of life. Hope and optimism are therefore essential so that people can initiate the process of healing. The people in the wasteland can only heal through simple interventions such as pushing for mental and spiritual enlightenment as well as making peace with the past and present and the hopelessness and despair it has brought about. In essence, the poem describes a modern world where people are oblivious to activity and hence do not show any interest or will to take part inctivities of life; in other words, the people of the modern world are living in some sort of life-in-death situation (Eliot 157).
In the early 1920s, Eliot was going through a difficult time in life that landed him in a Swiss sanatorium. Eliot wrote The Waste Land during this traumatic period. The poem conveyed the feeling of a psychologically turbulent atmosphere, therefore, reflecting the feelings that the poet might have been going through when he was writing the poem. Eliot’s personal life was not the source of motivation when writing the poem. Due to the difficulties he was facing, Eliot was near a nervous breakdown, and this can explain the personalised energy as well as the disparate imagism and juxtapositions used in the poem (McGuirk). Most critics claim that the fragmented nature of the poem can lead one to lose authenticity during interpretation. However, according to Eliot, readers can gain an authentic interpretation of the poem through distance (McGuirk). In other words, readers have a better perception of the poem since they have a temporal advantage over the writer since his time is historical to readers today (McGuirk). In this way, readers can understand the relationship between past and present and how Eliot relates modern theoretical experiences to a consistent and ugly past.
Therefore, the subjective and objective understanding of past and present information, different places, times and classes of people act as mutual supports to facilitate the passing of the poet’s message (McGuirk). However, the future-oriented nature of the poem allows for multiple interpretations of the poem thus causing ambiguity. The interpretations differ mainly since critics can choose to expand on the thoughts presented in the wasteland hence presenting personal opinions on modernity. Critics can also choose to analyse the poem through a historical approach. Here, the critic will evaluate how Eliot explains modernity; this modernity is currently considered historical by the current generation. Despite what critics say, interpreting the wasteland is sophisticated since the poem lacks thematic clarity (McGuirk). The lack of clarity, however, was Eliot’s intention in order to leave room for redemption which is the main theme of the poem. Readers can get clarity from the external texts referred to in the poem.
In introducing The Waste Land, we ought to describe its basic structure and give a summary of the plot as well as the themes evident in the poem. These components of introducing The Waste Land are described below.
Summary of Plot
The first part of the poem is the epigraph and dedication. In the dedication section, Eliot acknowledges Ezra Pound who was one of the people who influenced his poetry. The section also praises the Troubadour poets who are famed for their contributions to high poetic art in Europe. The Troubadour poets wilfully changed the poetic art to make it refined. So by dedicating his work to the troubadour poets, Eliot uses allusion to signify refinement (McGuirk 1). The allusion to refinement appears in some of the chapters of the poem. Refinement requires people to have self-control, one of the main components needed for the redemption of humanity. In the epigraph, a character known as Sibyl is asked about her desires and she replies that she wants to die; this first part of the poem, therefore, evokes the feeling of weariness and a world without joy. The reply by Sibyl shows that she has embraced an anti-materialistic philosophy; she believes that her death will bring her freedom. The reply, therefore, reflects the philosophy of nirvana which states that the self is a prisoner held hostage by its own existence and thus it can only be freed through the destruction of the materialistic body (McGuirk 1). One will notice that the theme of sorrow and regeneration is evident from the very beginning of the poem.
Burial of the Dead
The chapter begins with a voice expressing its wish to stop all new developments, movement, and change. This voice wants to remain in the dark and twilight consciousness of winter hence avoiding the pain and suffering of new developments. The desire is however unsuccessful, and the poem moves to a second voice which talks about death. The allusion to Countess Marie Larisch is used here to signify death through drowning (line 8). Drowning in ancient times was often used for sacrificial death ceremonies performed before renewals.
The next part of the chapter begins in lines 19 where the author momentarily goes back to the original voice of the poem and later ruptures to the use of fragmented images; this was one of the modern approaches to poetry and also the backbone of “The Waste Land” structure (McGuirk 1). Fragmentation was used here as imagery representing the incoherence of modern social structures. Fragmentation also represents the state of the mind of the people living in the modern world. In lines 30-34, the poem describes spring as a painful season despite that it was traditionally perceived as a season of rebirth. The hyacinth garden described in these lines fails to thrive hence suggesting that the modern wasteland will not undergo the rebirth brought about by spring.
Lines 42-59 explain the reason for the misery and decay present in the modern world. The character described here is Madame Sosostris. This woman does not know the real meanings of common myths told by society. Eliot explains that Madame Sosostris knows about the myths but is completely blind towards the real and fruitful meanings of the myths. Madame Sosostris tells people to fear death by water hence signifying that she does not know water was once used for renewal. Avoiding such a death is comparable to avoiding renewal and choosing to remain as a “living-dead” individual (McGuirk 1). The myth of death by water had become an empty superstition in the hands of Madame Sosostris. This part of the poem, therefore, explains that lack of knowledge has led the people to the modern generation to forget the real meaning of culture. As a result, misery and decay became widespread in the modern wasteland.
In lines 60-76, Eliot introduces the contemporary society where people are covered by a fog overlapping the seasonal changes representing light and dark. In other words, people are now living in a world where they cannot turn to darkness or light since they do not know how to do it. In the same way as Sibyl in the epigraph, people in contemporary society are unable to die. People in contemporary society also lack deep feelings such as honesty which define the very essence of being alive. As such, society has become neither living nor dead. When interpreted in terms of the historical position, this can signify the gloomy nature of civilisation that is still present today (McGuirk 1). However, “neither living nor dead” can also signify the hour of pain and misery before a new beginning.
A game of Chess
Eliot begins the second chapter of the poem “A Game of Chess” with style resembling 17th and 18th-century literature. During Eliot’s time, smooth and luxurious urban 20th century styles of writing were deemed unworthy of praise. At the time, people lived in cities with growing populations and all types of machines including TVs. The city was characterised by advertisements which created a culture of consumerism; the TV culture also began during this time. This way of life became fragments making up the new human-made wasteland. The city life dislocated people from their senses hence preventing them from engaging from intensely felt experiences (McGuirk 1). According to Eliot, the style of dissociating emotions from their contiguity was rooted in 17th and 18th-century literature. The style is reflected most extensively in lines 111-172 of the poem.
On top of everything else about this section of the poem, so much feeling has been disassociated in the poem that from line 111-137, we encounter disembodied voices that sound as if seemingly close to a nervous breakdown. Further, the people behind the voices avoid rain which is a water symbol representing redemption. Therefore, the section highlights how people in the modern wasteland are torn apart from their feelings. Because feelings are unfelt, the wasteland is inescapable at least for those who have been torn apart from their feelings (McGuirk 1).
The Fire Sermon
“The Fire Sermon” is narrated in the early winter season; the main character in this chapter is the Fisher King. The Fisher King is impotent hence signifying that his land is approaching an inevitable decay. This chapter has a wide range of themes and symbolism. Some of the themes included in the chapter are modernity signified by horns and motors (line 197) and spirituality signified by the Holy Grail. The core of the chapter, which is line 187-204, alluded to the quest for the Holy Grail. The Holy Grail represents the renewal of spirituality. The quest for the Grail is replete with temptations such as sensual music; the temptations here mirror the temptations that Jesus Christ experienced before his death and resurrection (Pratt 313). Eliot takes the chance here to remind readers that most humans in the modern wasteland are easily tempted by basic desires hence the occurrence of events such as the rape of Philomela describe in “A game of Chess.”
We are introduced to Tiresias in the next part of the “The Fire Sermon.” Tiresias is Eliot’s anti-self; he is emotionless and therefore perceives everything impersonally. It is through Tiresias that readers become aware of the nature of the wasteland. The only similarity between Eliot and Tiresias is that they cannot affect change in the wasteland. Eliot uses Tiresias to contrast the healthy emotional state and the indifferent emotional experience (McGuirk 1). When the problem is lack of feelings, then it is only logical that such indifference is diagnosed by contrasting it with a healthy state of experiencing emotions.
Death by Water
It is in this chapter that Eliot properly introduces the theme of redemption. The chapter talks about a death that occurred by water. Madame Sosostris is reintroduced in this chapter. She is overcome with fear since what she told people to be afraid of has already happened, someone has drowned. Nevertheless, there is a peaceful mood despite that death brings grief. Further, the death does not end the wasteland; instead, Eliot describes a figure in a post-resurrection stature resembling that of Christ (Eliot[b] 99). The post-resurrection image is the first symbol in the body of the poem to signify the occurrence of redemption. Perhaps Eliot was trying to signify that the same figure who drowned in water has returned purified and refined by death and water.
What the Thunder Said
The final chapter reflects a lot of Eastern philosophy especially Hinduism. More to this, lines 322-325 repeat the word ‘after’ several times as if to suggest that something has passed, perhaps death by water. What follows in the rest of the lines (327-330) is more death which can be interpreted as an assertion that the wasteland is no longer decaying. Instead, the civilisation is already dead. The uncertainty of the post-death environment reaches a climax in line 366 of the poem where hallucinations and a disconcerted perception take over (Eliot[b] 119).
Basic Structure of the Waste Land Poem
The poem’s unique structure is one of the aspects that make it a perfect example of modern poetry. This poem is ‘a combination of many poems’ which lead to fragmentation and disorganisation of the poem. The poem lacks transitions from one section to another. Therefore, the pattern lacks unity and proper organisation of the material into a single meaning (Gish, 29). At the beginningthe poem, Eliot uses an epigraph that serves the purpose of introducing the theme. The epigraph also invokes the readers’ mood before they start reading the body. (Friedrich, p, 221). The four hundred and thirty-four lines long poem has five unequally divided parts which include burial of the dead, a game of chess, fire sermon, death by water, and what the thunder said. The parts consist of several interruptions that hinder linear narration. The third part of the poem is the longest with one hundred and thirty-nine lines. The fourth part is the shortest with only ten lines. All the five parts are connected in one way or another to make Eliot’s work a masterpiece. The poet, throughout the poem, used all sort of characters (Friedrich, p, 202). For example, he used Phlebas as the Phoenician, Madame Sosostris as the fortune teller and an ancient sailor who in this poem is seen to drown and many other characters that are seen to weave in and out without any kind of relations, which proves the disorganisation of the poem.
Eliot’s poem The Waste Land is one of the things that resulted in the Modernist Movement that will be discussed in another section of this dissertation. The poet has used allusions which is one of the modernist aspects of a poem. An allusion is a figure of speech in poetry that is used to refer to a known story or event in order to help the reader make a comparison (Hinds 7). For example, throughout his notes, the poet refers to the book of Ezekiel, Isaiah and Psalms in the Bible as a tool to help the reader hold it together and make sense of our lives today. The poet used characters from novels of his time. For example, Madam Sosostris, one of Eliot’s characters is also a character in Aldous Huxley’s novel; Chrome Yellow. This novel was published in 1920, two years before the Waste Land. The poet also used the quotes of his fellow poets to bring the aspect of allusion. For example, Eliot’s quotes from Baudelaire’s who was a 19th-century French poet collection ‘Fleurs de mal’ in the Burial of the Deadline 60 and 76. Eliot also used lines from famous play writers such as John Webster who wrote around the time of Shakespeare. Eliot referred to his play ‘The White Devil’ in line 75 of ‘The Burial of the Dead.’ William Shakespeare works have been referred several times by Eliot in his poem. To be more specific Eliot alludes to the plays ‘The Tempest’, ‘The Hamlet and ‘Antony and Cleopatra.’ Eliot also used historical references. For example, ‘Battle of Mylae’ in line 70, was an allusion to the World War I that took place in 1914 to 1918. (Gish p 69). Since this war was fought due to financial gain, Eliot referred to human’s stupidity and greed and combined it with ‘The Waste Land.’ The ‘Fire Sermon’ in Eliot’s poem, was preached by a spiritual teacher Buddha. The preacher had intentions of invoking people’s growing lust of sex and worldly material things. “London Bridge is Falling down” used by Eliot in line 427 was common in his time and famous today among the nursery kids.
Metaphors in poetry are identical to similes only without the use of “like” or “as” and applied to an object which is not literally applicable. The World War had great influence in Eliot’s mindset while he was writing his poem. This is the reason metaphors of war are evident in mainly in his last three sections. ‘Rat’ is one of the metaphors used in line 187 and 188 Eliot says how rat crept softly through the vegetation’ dragging its belly on the bank. The rat is used to show pestilence, and the whole idea of it creeping through the vegetation shows how the war in infiltrating in the world and the dragging aspect shows the ideal and aftermath of the war. Lines 372 and 375 are also references to the war. The poet says that cracks and reforms burst in the violent air, falling towers, Jerusalem, Athens, Vienna, and London. These were references to cities that at one time they were under siege and were greatly affected by the war. Vienna and London are important to note because they were directly affected by the First World War. In many sections of his poem, Eliot is making a commentary on the World War and its aftermath by use of metaphors.
The poet of “The Wasteland” used fragmentation form compared to the organised style used by poets then. Eliot broke the traditional rules of writing and invented new ones. The Wasteland is a very long poem made up of five subsections that have no consistent rhyme. The style used is known as free verse. Use of allusions in The Waste Land is more evident than any other poems of its time (Gish p.50). Eliot referred to historical events that had occurred earlier; he used quotes from famous writers and also used the Bible as a reference in his Waste Land poem. For writers to convert the old and make it new, they should be familiar with their literary history. We have seen Eliot in several references to Shakespeare, Phoenicia and also the Greek myths. A modern touch in these people’s work is evident in Eliot’s Allusions. Another thing that made The Waste Land unique in its time is that the tone is consistent with the mood of the modernist era. Eliot in his introduction line “April is the cruelest month” and the title itself “The Waste Land” already proves to us that the poem will be dark and sad. Eliot’s poem is truly a modern poem. (Gish, p. 58-59) He has used plenty of imagery, fragmentation, and switching of characters as discussed above. The techniques are used to declare one of the major themes which is a morally corrupt world. The imagery used by Eliot in his Wasteland poem was less described compared to imagery in other poems. Eliot let his imagery speak for itself. Some of the vital imagery in Waste Land is in line 30 “I will show you fear in a handful of dust.” This could represent several things. He could be referring to Bible verse “Dust we are; dust we shall return” or the fear of lack of rain that would lead to drought.
The Modernist Poetry movement took place in the 19th century and reached its climax during the start of the First World War. Artists and writers used the modernist project to re-evaluate the work of their predecessors by rejecting the romantic ideas. (Dickie, 128) The Wasteland, after it was published in 1922, became the epitome of the modernist text evident in its allusions, fragmentation aspect and mixed languages used. Several other poets such as Hart Crane, William Yeats, and Wallace Stevens were associated with modernism. (Mester, p, 98). Modernism Movement gave rise to other movements such as Futurism, Dada, Imagism, and Postmodernism. Several of the stylistic devices and method of writing featured in The Wasteland characterize modernism and its nature. Fragmentation and disorganisation, voices and streams of consciousness, juxtaposition are some of those aspects used in the wasteland that also characterize modernism. Modernist poetry uses a wide range of subjects and themes. (Mester, p, 107).
Modern elements can be classified into; Stylistic experimentations, new modes of expression, new themes, and open-ended nature (Gordon, p, 127). The poets that existed before modernism used limited subjects and were romantically personal on the surface but in modern we have a range of topics and themes. In modernism poetry, there are many distinct themes in a single poem in contrast to traditional where each poem had a specific theme. Modernists Poetry movement got rid of all the conventional, traditional rules such as in the form, rhythms, and stanzas. Today, there are pictorial poems, remixed rhythms and other technical aspects of poetry continue to be tested. The systems that dominated traditionally such as rhyme schemes are no longer used. Modern poets make their own rules. They break with the past, rejected the aesthetic values of the poets before them, broke the romantic clichés and rejected diction that seemed too exaggerated. (Gordon, p, 116)
Cummings is one of the poets that highly practiced modern syntax. The syntax is the arrangements of words in a sentence in any language. For example, in one of his poems “anyone lived in a pretty how town,” he says “spring summer autumn winter they sang his did not he danced his did.” A stream of consciousness is another modernism aspect. This is the natural flow of a person’s thoughts. Eliot in his “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” poem, a stream of consciousness is evident. In traditional poetry, images were described to finer details while in the modern poetry, the poets do not talk about the themes behind the image. Instead, the image speaks for itself. (Dickie, 133)
Themes Incorporated Into “The Waste Land”
The poem by Eliot has several themes integrated into its very essence. Each theme plays a specific role in conveying the overall message of the poet. Some of the themes used in the poem include that of fragmentation of the world, death, rebirth, water, love, and lust as well as changing gender roles and seasons. There are several other themes incorporated into the poem; each of the themes is described in detail below.
Damaged Spirit of Humanity
The main theme, however, is that of the damaged spirit of humanity. Similar to many poets of the time, Eliot wanted his work to reflect the broken psychological state of humanity during the early 20th century. The events that occurred in the early 20th century challenged cultural notions hence fracturing and transforming the world. Most poets of the time wanted to become visionary and wished they could change the world through writing. Modernist writers such as T.S. Eliot perceived the new world as broken and alienated since Europe had lost an entire generation of people to the world war. The survivors struggled to find peace in the new altered society.
Eliot regarded the new society as wounded and paralysed; he recognised that culture was slowly crumbling and this would ultimately lead to the fall of humanity. The theme of the damaged human psyche is evident throughout the poem “The Waste Land” as well as in other works of Eliot including “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock.” The damaged psyche of humanity prevented most people from engaging in communication with one another hence facilitating the demise of the human psyche. Lack of communication is an idea that Eliot explores thoroughly in “a game of chess” which is the second part of “The Waste Land.”
Changing Gender Roles
The altered society caused gender roles to undergo a significant change hence another theme found in “The Waste Land” is the changing nature of gender roles. In the centuries preceding the time of Eliot, women in many societies were confined to the domestic environment. Sexuality was therefore not a commonly explored by works of literature published at the time. It was not until the events of the early century that people felt alienated from each other and also empowered to break away from social constraints such as gender roles. Women started taking part in activities previously assigned to men such as voting and attending school. Modernist poets started portraying masculine and feminine characters in their poems as people who could assume any role rather than portraying them as absolute identities as defined by society. Eliot portrays Tiresias, one of the main characters of the poem, as a hermaphrodite whose power is drawn from his female and male genitalia. Using Tiresias, Eliot created a character that embodies wholeness through the coming together of two genders.
Death
Death is one of the major themes T.S. Eliot has put much emphasis on throughout the poem. It is one of the events that have been largely focused on thought out the poem. For instance, in the first section, it is highlighted through the application of metaphorical language and symbolism. In part one of the lyrics, Eliot’s narrative focuses on his daily environment. He lives in a desert that lacks water, shade and has lots of dead trees. Dead trees, in this case, refer to the demise of spirits whereas no shade also relates because it characterises the subject’s lack of comfort and describes how unfriendly a desert environment can be towards human beings. Drought is also a clear symbol of death as depicted in the poem. The appearance of only rock and no water and the sandy road, with dry sterile thunder, heard from the mountain with no rain clearly depicts death. The term ‘sterile thunder’ diminishes the hope of people yearning for the rain. In this section, the author shows his quest for answers and the spirits that deep down he feels are dead. His environment offers no hope because an area that lacks living trees, shade or water seems to be hopeless. By the shadows turning from dawn to dusk, also represent death somehow. This demonstrates how people come and go in a very short time frame and that in the end; all individuals will turn to dust. The theme was described extensively in the fourth section of the poem Waste Land. “Death by Water” uses Phlebas the Phoenician who succumbed to drowning to highlight the theme of death. The central ideology put across by this brief part of the poem is the belief of regeneration and renewal.
The title of the chapter “Burial of the Dead” also clearly shows the theme of death. In this chapter, Eliot further focuses on the idea of new life arising from death. Rebirth keeps appearing all through the poem. Trees and water were regarded as life and rebirth of spirits for suffering individuals all through the poem. In the poem, there was contradiction where spring which commonly was referred to as a period of life, rebirth, and re-energising of nature, while winter was a time for cold demise, inactivity, and suffocation swapping role. This dispute makes the poem a classic piece of modernistic work. In the first section of the poem, the character was conversing with a man who had been to war and was enquiring on the corpse he had buried in the garden. His quest was to know whether the corpse had sprouted to illustrate the rebirth of the demise. At the beginning of the poem, references to new life are made in connection with lilacs. Eventually, the poet replaces lilacs for corpse flowers to bring out the idea that life flourishing from decaying or on polluted earth is therefore polluted. Generally, death and birth are the critical factors of the poem; the author clearly highlights the theme of hope and resurrection after death.
Water
Although water is a reoccurring theme throughout the poem, it is explicitly mentioned in the fourth section of the poem. In “The Wasteland” water is seen to be highly spiritual with numerous references made all through. Eliot shows water both as death and in different instances considered as rebirth and renewal of the spirits. Part one shows the author is yearning for water and the spiritual healing that accompanies it. Section one, “death by water” is used to refer to the character that looks confined to a desert where life seems almost impossible. In relation to this, death by water can be used to refer to thirst or the inadequacy of water. Commonly, the character is in search of answers and finds he often finds himself really lost and lonely. The poem also brings out other references to the ocean and the river. The ocean in section one is negatively brought out severally. It is seen to turn one’s eyes to pearls and eyes are mainly the windows to one’s soul. Therefore someone without eyes, their soul is basically dead. This is a clear instance where water has been used to symbolise death. Water is also brought out during periods of heartbreaks. In part one, when the character loses her love, she referred to the ocean claiming that it doesn’t return lovers as people say. Water is a clear symbol of birth, death, and resurrection in the poem “The Wastelands.” At the beginning of the poem, water characterises the provider of life and a sign of fertility. On the other hand, it signifies death: “fear death by water.” Phlebas, whose body yielded nothing other than decaying matter, brings out the aspect of death in reality that the demise and decomposition of human beings will always emerge victoriously.
Water is an essential aspect of the poem and is seen to appear throughout the verses. The idea communicated by the author is that not all water is pure or clear. Wasteland is suffering for lack of water while on the other hand there is a sailor who succumbed as a result of too much water. Later in the poem, Eliot focuses on the bareness of the land. In this instance, water is seen as a sign of fertility that was no longer found in the wasteland. Lack of this fertility signified the absence of hope for anything new or attractive to sprout. The inadequacy of water in the wasteland signifies lack promise for rebirth. At the conclusion of the poem when the rain finally falls, it can mean the washing away of sins, eradicating misdeeds and the beginning of a new future. Although the rain comes to eliminate drought, and water a symbol of hope, it is accompanied by thunder and lightning which are apparently very destructive forces of nature. Throughout the poem, water is of great significance in regards to life, death and resurrection and purification.
Love, Lust, and Sexuality
The theme of love and Lust is evident since Eliot makes references to tales such as Tristan und Isolde, Cleopatra and Tereus and Philomela in various parts of the poem. The three stories have love as the central subject hence signifying that Eliot intended to convey the theme of Love in his poem. However, Eliot seems to highlight that love and lust are always destructive. For instance, Cleopatra and Tristan both end up dying because of love hence indicating the destructive nature of love and lust. Perhaps the most suitable example to highlight the destructive nature of love and lust is the episode where Eliot explains the encounter of a female typist with a ‘carbuncular’ man (Eliot lines230-240). Eliot describes that their liaison was akin to a rape; similar to the manner in which Philomela was violated. The clerk was unable to stop the man from making love to her regardless of the fact that engaging in cheap sexual acts ruins her perfect social image.
Love and lust are therefore destructive; Lust, in particular, is a sin since it leads to easy, futile and rampant sex. The themes of love and lust hence signify the futility of modern-day sexuality. All the sexual encounters in the poem lack passion; this, in turn, signifies a lack of purpose. Conceivably, the story of Albert and his wife is the best example to highlight the futility of sex; Albert refuses to leave his wife alone sexually despite that she almost died during pregnancy. Albert expects that his wife will pleasure him after he returns home from war; if not his wife, then Albert expects to be pleasured by another woman (Eliot lines160-170). Albert does not engage in sex due to desire and passion but rather due to necessity. Another example of futile sexuality can be found in section 3 of ‘A Game of Chess’; here, Mr. Eugenides invites people to engage in homosexuality. Homosexuality is the ultimate example of useless sexuality since it does not lead to procreation or the continuation of a generation. Each of these encounters signifies futility as opposed to the passion associated with purposeful sexuality.
Sexuality is therefore pretty much the indicator of the extent of moral decay plaguing modern society. Eliot uses sex to show readers how modern society has fallen; on several occasions, Eliot talks about the misuses of sex. According to Eliot, the present society is completely obsessed with sex since they practice it everywhere and even display it on the television. The problem for Eliot is not even the sex but rather its separation from love. For the poet, sex has the potential to be a great thing that can be used for procreation and also in uniting couples. However, pop society completely stripped sex of its fundamental significance.
All in all, love, Lust and sexuality are prominent themes deeply ingrained in T. S. Eliot’s poem. ‘A Game of Chess’ explores lust and sexuality among different women while ‘The Fire Sermon’ describes the liaison between two lovers; their encounter is often compared to rape. Therefore, it is evident that the subject of love, lust, and sex is common in the poem; however, the most important thing to note is the futility of the love, lust, and sex described in the poem. None of the relationships described or the sexual encounters lead to regeneration. Eliot’s hidden message is that the fruitless sexuality means that no new life will begin; the same way that the wasteland lacks water, futile sexuality suggests that no reproduction will occur hence humanity is heading to a doomed future.
Memories of Past Events
History or rather ‘memories of the past’ is another major theme in Eliot’s poem. Throughout the poem, Eliot compares modern society to the traditional society. Eliot’s standpoint is that contemporary society has strayed away from their traditions. The poem narrates several personal memories but the most important ones, according to Eliot, are the cultural memories that modern society fails to preserve. Many critics have mentioned that Eliot was emotional about the past since he tended to fantasize about a triumphant past; these critics criticize Eliot since the supreme past he talks about probably never existed.
Most narratives proclaim that in the past people lived happily engaging in cultural activities such as drinking wine and hunting. However, this was not always the case since the war, plagues and famine affected people during that time as well. For Eliot, however, the question is not about living happily but rather the fact that contemporary society has developed cultural amnesia where most people lack understanding of the history of their culture. The decline of modern society is directly related to the fact that people have forgotten their culture.
Eliot further suggests that past events occur in a repeating cycle; for instance, there were several wars before the First World War. The First World War was labelled as a great war since no other war of that magnitude had ever occurred in history. The main consequence of the war was profound change within the society since the war had turned the world upside down. One of the most significant change was that of technology which enabled mankind to reach heights he had never achieved before. However, despite the changes, history has re-occurred where people have become spiritually deprived. In essence, Eliot’s message is that ancient events were repeated during the medieval times and again during the Renaissance; these events are therefore bound to occur again in future centuries.
Eliot highlights the theme of past memories using the allusion to the war at Mylae; according to historians, this was a bloody war between Carthage and the Roman Republic. The war led to a decline in culture similar to the events following the First World War. Eliot also alludes to the destruction, restoration, and re-destruction of several ancient cities. The references used signify a recurrent pattern of the downward spiral of cultural values. So, these allusions to past events signify repetition yet in the wasteland there is no regeneration thus indicating that mankind has reached its endpoint. However, history has taught us over and over again that humanity always redeems itself despite the calamities faced. People in the wasteland should, therefore, look forward in the hope that the degenerated world will be redeemed.
Some critics have stated that Eliot’s allusion to past events is an attempt to get people to forget gruesome historical events such as the great wars. The only way that people in the broken modern world can survive is through forgetting any evil deeds that might have happened in the past. Eliot used the character of the sailor in ‘Burial of the Dead’ to show people that it is better to forget the evil deeds of the past rather than let them haunt your present. The poem narrates that the sailor remembers the horrors he had experienced in the past and the skeletons he had to place in closets. Line 75 of the poem reads as follows “O keep the Dog far hence, that’s friend, or with his nails, he’ll dig it up again” (Eliot lines75-76). The line shows that the sailor is afraid of the past and has a desire to keep it hidden in order to help him forget all the horrors he experienced.
In summary, the theme of past memories runs throughout the poem and can be seen in many instances as one reads through the poem. Most of the memories are personal to Eliot while others are memories of events that occurred a long time ago. Some of the memories are about good times when people engaged fully in culture; the poet longs for such times when things were easier, and the world was not morally corrupt. Other memories are of sad historical events such as wars; here, the poet’s advice to people is to forget such events in order to facilitate healing of the land.
Rebirth
It is now evident that a huge part of the poem evokes the feelings of disappointment due to the desolation plaguing modern people. Eliot, nevertheless, suggests that there is still hope for a rebirth despite the extent of damage that society has gone through. The poem explores the theme of desolation first before embarking on symbols of rebirth and regeneration. The lifeless image created by the poet brings about the disappointment that was brought about by desolation. There are several sources of disappointment including from the misuse of sex and also from the fact that the land is barren and contains no water. The misuse of sex, as was the case with Philomela and the typist, emphasizes the theme of desolation and disappointment since the characters in the two stories engage in sex that is detached from love. The sex is therefore blunt, and the character’s experience is negative. Sex in the wasteland is thus as desolate as the world described by Eliot. Disappointment is also evident in the recurrent change of season since the good life experienced during summer and spring is quickly replaced by winter which is harsh on most people. The poet best describes the barren nature of the land in the last chapter ‘what the thunder said.’ In this last section of the poem we come across a land with no water but only rocks and sand (Eliot lines331-340). The narrator travels through this desolate land without water to sustain his life; this strongly elicits the feelings of desperation. A dry sterile thunder strikes while the narrator is travelling through the land. Thunder often signifies rain, but the rain does not come despite the roaring thunder; thus, the narrator is left disappointed.
Eliot describes several types of wastelands in the poem. All of these lands are similar in that they share the common characteristic of desolation. The desolation, however, presents itself in different forms; for instance, desolation presents as loneliness, disappointment, and abandonment which are all evident throughout the poem. The subject of desolation is perhaps most evident in the city center where people are complaining about loneliness. The loneliness is due to the modern emphasis on individualism which leads to isolation. People in modern society are so busy pursuing their selfish interests that they forget the people around them. In addition, the people are unaware that they are responsible for the isolation troubling them. The topic of abandonment is seen in line 180 of the poem where the poet narrates that the loitering heirs of city directors (signifying youth) have abandoned their summer girlfriends without leaving an address to enable future contact (Eliot 180). The behavior of the youth does not only show abandonment but also loneliness and disappointment.
Several symbols of hope are however included in the poem to give people hope for rebirth. The desolation seen in the wasteland has led people to crave for a savior or a miracle that will cleanse the world of its suffering. Eliot, therefore, alludes to the image of Christ as well as other religious figures in an attempt to postulate rebirth as a major theme of the poem. The people in the wasteland are spiraling down towards certain doom; the only solution, therefore, is a total renewal to enable a new beginning. Eliot shows that waster can be used to bring about a rebirth; however, he also warns that it can also destroy. He refers severally to baptism and rivers as symbols of rebirth. Eliot also alludes to objects such as the Holy Grail which is considered a Christian symbol of restoration. Eliot soon realizes that the world will still follow the same path of destruction despite attempts at rebirth and regeneration. This realization leads Eliot to turn to heaven as the perfect place to find the peace that the world lacks; according to Eliot, an ineffable solution is required to save people from the desolation present in the wasteland.
The theme of rebirth is conveyed mostly through symbolism and allusion. For example, the poet refers to vegetation as well as water which are considered as important components of life. Vegetation and water will also lead to the rejuvenation of the land hence giving people hope for a rebirth. Another example is when Eliot makes reference to the resurrection of Jesus as another way to highlight the hope for rebirth. This particular allusion also expresses another critical point which is that death can also bring regeneration and rebirth. Jesus died to save humanity from sin; thus, through Jesus’ death, Christians were reborn. Death also facilitates rebirth since it provides room for new life; Eliot makes this point clear with the first line of the poem “April is the cruelest month” (Eliot 1). The cruelty of April leads to the death of some people hence making way for new life and enabling the continuation of traditions; in essence, the poet is communicating that some people must die so that others may live. Thus, death highlights the theme of rebirth if interpreted from the standpoint presented above.
The theme of rebirth is revisited severally in the poem; however, rebirth is not taking place in the wasteland. Rather, the characters in the poem are most of the time seeking for rebirth in one way or another, but they end up experiencing the harsh reality of life in the desolate wasteland. Thus the poem is largely depressing throughout the narration since not much rebirth occurs; in spite of that, there are multiple allusions to the idea of rebirth hence signifying that it might just happen. The people are therefore given hope for a better future. Other symbols of hope include the dark clouds which give hope for the possibility of rain that will bring about the rejuvenation of the land. Rain often symbolizes a new beginning. So, the thunder, as well as the dark clouds, offer people hope for rain that will lead to the growth of life; this promise of rain is comparable to the promise of an improvement of the individuals, culture, and societies in the wasteland. Eliot also ends the poem with a Hindu mantra of hope, ‘Datta, Dayadhvam, Damyata.’
The Seasons
The change of seasons is another prominent theme in the poem; the theme is evident from the very first line of the poem which reads “April is the Cruellest month” (Eliot line 1). April falls in the season of spring, so Eliot was implying that spring is cruel; this is rather a peculiar choice to use to signify cruelty, but the contradiction created lays the ground for the rest of the poem. In other words, Eliot is stipulating that what brings death can also bring life. The seasons in the poem changes from one state to another but still they maintain the same cycle. Hence, there is a recurrent pattern of seasonal change. The fluctuation of seasons in the wasteland makes the wasteland described by Eliot seem devoid of change; as the seasons change, they maintain some sort of static balance hence, seemingly, nothing changes. The wasteland, therefore, lacks any real change; the world is hanging in a recurrent limbo patiently waiting for the beginning of a new season.
Religion
The poem does not support any major religion in specific but rather it highlights the fact that religion has lost the influence it once had on the people of the world. In ancient times, religion gave people answers to all questions about life; modern society has however lost touch with religion, and this has led to the suffering being experienced in society. According to Eliot, modern society needs to believe in a higher power that will offer salvation. The poet alludes to different religious figures from various religions including Hinduism and Christianity. The central message is that religion has lost its power and one of the side effects is the suffering of people in the wasteland.
The declining power of religion is well described in the last chapter of the poem, ‘What the Thunder Said.’ The section narrates another version of the story of crucifixion; in this version of the story, the crucified Christ does not resurrect. As Eliot puts it “He who was living is now dead, we who were living are now dying.” The line signifies that people have developed a nihilistic view of the world and for this reason, modern society is decaying. In the concluding chapters of the poem, Eliot hints that people should consider embracing eastern religious practices since the western religion has a nihilistic view of the world and the future. The nihilistic view of society has allowed people to engage freely in destructive practices such as war and sexual misuse. Society should, therefore, look to eastern culture and religion to facilitate the spiritual restoration of modern people.
Literary Techniques used in ‘Waste Land
An allusion is a figure of speech in poetry that is used to refer to a known story or event to help the reader make a comparison. For example, throughout his notes, the poet refers to the book of Ezekiel, Isaiah and Psalms in the bible as a tool to help the reader hold it together and make sense of our lives today (Eliot[a] lines 20, 23, 182, 426). The poet has used allusions which is one of the modernist aspects of a poem. The poet used characters from novels of his time. For example, Madam Sosostris, one of Eliot’s characters is also a character in Aldous Huxley’s novel; Chrome Yellow. This novel was published in 1920, two years before the Waste Land. The poet also used the quotes of his fellow poets to bring the aspect of allusion. For example, Eliot’s quotes from Baudelaire’s who was the 19th-century French poet collection ‘Fleurs de mal’ in the Burial of the Dead in line 60 and 76. Eliot also used lines from famous play writers such as John Webster who wrote around the time of Shakespeare. Eliot referred to his play ‘The White Devil’ in line 75 of ‘The Burial of the Dead.’ William Shakespeare works have been referred several times by Eliot in his poem (Eliot[a] lines, 77, 172, 417). To be more specific Eliot alludes to the plays ‘The Tempest’, ‘The Hamlet and ‘Antony and Cleopatra.’ Eliot also used historical references. For example, ‘Battle of Mylae’ in line 70, was an allusion to the World War I that took place in 1914 to 1918 The war took place due to financial gain, Eliot referred to human’s stupidity and greed and combined it with ‘The Waste Land.’ The ‘Fire Sermon’ in Eliot’s poem, was preached by a spiritual teacher Buddha. The preacher had intentions of invoking people’s growing lust of sex and worldly material things. “London Bridge is Falling” used by Eliot in line 427 was common in his time and famous today among the nursery kids (Eliot[a]).
Metaphors in poetry are like similes without the use of “like” or “as” and applied to an object which is not literally applicable. The World War had considerable influence in Eliot’s mindset while he was writing his poem. It is for this reason metaphors of war are evident in mainly in his last three sections. ‘rat’ is one of the metaphors used. In line 187 and 188, Eliot says how rat crept softly through the vegetation’ dragging its belly on the bank. (Eliot[a]). The rat is used to show pestilence, and the whole idea of it creeping through the vegetation shows how the war in infiltrating in the world and the dragging aspect shows the ideal and aftermath of the war. Lines 372 and 375 are also references to the war (Eliot[a]). The poet says that cracks and reforms burst in the violent air, falling towers, Jerusalem, Athens, Vienna, and London. These were references to cities that at one time they were under siege and were significantly affected by the war. Vienna and London are important to note because they were directly affected by the first world war. In many sections of his poem, Eliot is making a commentary on the World War and its aftermath by use of metaphors.
Eliot used juxtapositions of the past and the present in his poem. The approach is a literary technique that mentions more than one idea, characters, and deeds at the same time in a poem to develop contrasts. (Wayne, p, 214). A good example where the poet of ‘The Waste Land’ poem used juxtaposition was in the section of ‘The Fire Sermon’ where the young typist, a young woman in her apartment and her lover comes in the scene. The young man was described to be carbuncular. It also plays out in the seduction scene in a crappy apartment. The poet says that the time is now propitious as he guesses. The meal ends, although she is bored and tired. Efforts to engage her in caresses are un-reproved. The two activities happening in this scene is her not being into it and him going for it anyway and she doesn’t push him away. Both an ancient, old figure and the modern scene with a typist. (Wayne, p, 203). Her lover gives it more weight which makes it look mechanical than romantic. It is explained that she has always been not into it. The poet also used juxtaposition in Teiresias’s scene. The whole scene is narrated by Teiresias’s. an old Greek prophet. He sees the future and not only can he do this but also he made god’s angry. The god’s then turned him into a woman then into a man again. At times, critics consider the poem as a cubist poem that juxtaposes a variety of genres, languages, and areas of experience. The theme is made possible by different methods used such as collage, a technique used by cubist to assemble images.
Voices in the ‘Waste Land’ merge, collide and dissolve to break the boundary between them. The silent partner in a conversation in a Munich’s café, of a man and a figure of a lady in a dark room. (Brooks, Cleanth.115). The shadow, however, becomes the voice that laments by the lake waters. Eliot’s poem is full of voices. It starts slowly as a silent poem with the quiet growth of ‘Lilacs out of the Dead Land’ and continues to be noisy, colliding with sounds. There is the patter of ‘Spring Rain.’ The stillness of the silence of forgetful snow is shattered by talkative friends in the Hofgarten, chatting over coffee then frightened voices of children sledding. Marie’s voice as she asks what are the roots that clutch is interrupted by a snatch smog from Wagner’s ‘Triston und Isodole’ and lamentation of hyacinth girl. The sound of sighs and short infrequent exhales until the interlocutor asks about the thicket that was planted last year in the garden. At this point, the leader feels like the voices are competing and displacing one another as if tuning to an analog radio. ‘The Waste Land’ is described as ‘drama of voices’ exactly like a musical composition that is waiting for us to hear. (Wayne, p, 240). The poem language brings forth a feeling of musicality. For example, The Fire Sermon begins with the statement “The river tent is broken, and the last fingers of the leaf sink into the wet river bank. Sounds, music, and voices are the epitome of the ‘Waste Land’ structure and proof of modernity.
The title of the poem ‘The Waste Land’ depicts the imagery that represents the torn apart aspect of the modern world. (Wayne, p, 200). The poet uses the image of ‘London bridge is falling down’ shows an image of the world meant to speak more pervasive imagery. The poem is concerned with painting an image rather than narrating. The poem has made use of several images. The Waste Land as a dessert has a lot of water flowing through it. Water is used to symbolize death and life. ‘Waste Land’ is dying from lack of water while the drowning sailor is dying because of too much water. In the final parts of the poem, water is seen as an essential commodity where the poet focuses on lack of water and too many rocks on the sandy roads. Water is used to represent fertility, that the Waste Land is deprived. The line that says the “spring rain” comes to bring new life to the landscape is a representation of hope. Dryness of the Waste Land due to lack of water shows the spiritual infertility of the modern world. When the drowning Phoenician Sailor appears in the fortune-teller cards relates to the English myth of the Fisher King which causes the land to stop producing new life. In my opinion, the sailor that drowned represent the curse cast upon modern Europe. The poet has used fire severally, to represent the hell experience. (Wayne, p, 217). In line 308, the speaker starts screaming burning several times and begs the Lord to let him die. However, the fire is also used to represent redemption and purification. It is shown in the line that says Dante hid in the fire that refines him. The line gives us hope that despite the catastrophes we are going through there is hope. The images of keys and prison show up in a few lines in the poetry. When the poet says “we think of the key each in his prison” he means that everyone is trapped in the prison of selfishness. People of today have lost the act of connections and lack of the unifying culture that brings us together. The tarot cards imagery dates back to medieval England, and the poet finds something meaningful in them. He uses the cards as images throughout his poem. The cards appear when the speaker approaches Madame Sosostris, who withdraws six cards that represent different people. The thunder imagery appears in the almost final sections as a promise that rain will come soon. Thunder can also as a source of destruction. The poet intends to show us that the society can either get better or worse.
Eliot used repetition as one of his most effective methods of creating an incredible poem. Repetition is used to emphasize the depressing times of the post-war times in Europe. The line “sweet Thames runs smoothly till I end my song” is repeated to show that the river is a representation of optimism. (Wayne, p, 262). Repetition helps the reader to find most important points of his poem. Repeating words like “no water and only rock and unreal city” drives home the despair and loss of people of Europe. “Water” has been repeated severally, but its definition differs from one part to another. “The Fire Sermon” section of Wasteland, repletion has frequently been used. Repetition of “unreal city” is the most impactful reiterations in this poem. These terms reveal the sense of shock that has been damaged and lost. When he describes the mountains “with no water but only rocks, rocks and no water” emphasizes the desperation of the continent with the emptiness that is being felt. Eliot’s repetition in his poem describes the helplessness and darkness of the post-World-War.
‘Waste Land’ poem has aspects of dramatic monologue since the speaker reflects on his memories and experiences. The speaker in this poem continually shifts between different historical moments and cultures. However, it is difficult to know who is saying what. What we are sure is that they are all talking to us. For example, “The love song of J. Alfred Prufrock” the speaker shifts from one personality to another. A monologue can be defined as a substantial act performed by an individual actor. They are commonly used both in dramatic and nondramatic poems. In poetry, a monologue is a speech presented by one subject to other listening subjects in a display of their inner feelings and thoughts (Julius 63).
In the poem, T.S Eliot’s highlights the use of dramatic monologue throughout the poem. In many instances, the poetry differs with a traditional speech for example through eliminating the auditor’s role. All through this poem, it lacks a well-defined auditor, and in place, Eliot uses several fragmented voices (Williamson 17). Eventually, these become composite voices which act as the overall voice of the poet. Eliot in portraying the dramatic monologue nature of the poem, he often shifts through various personalities, historical times and culture. The style brings out the poem’s high quality in conjunction with maintaining its fragmented nature.
The monologue in this work of art is a combination of fragmented images that are horrifying although in many instances beautifully poetic. ‘The Wasteland’ displays various themes such as infertility; death and isolation are highlighted through the characters and the landscape. If brought together, these themes give the poem meaning and strength. The application of myths in conjunction with anthropological, historical and religious symbols cements its global quality. Another message brought across by this monologue is that culture and life only advance if people respect and comprehend their history, especially on religion (Julius 67). Eliot is apparently a cultural minister, and in the same manner, as a minister, he puts across what he perceives helpful as an ambassador or pure critic. He indulges himself in a culture which he has excellent wishes of advancing rather than set himself aside.
In summary, this poem contains fragments, allusions, metaphors, imagery and all other stylistic devices that the poet used to form the heart of the poem itself. All these techniques have been used to create a new form of poetry that represents the mess of the modern world. The poet, by using all the poetic styles, traditions and devices have an aim of reinvigorating the lost respect of cultural practices that pervades modernity. The most fascinating is the use of literary methods used by Eliot. The poem represents a narrative of how the life was in the 20th century. The poem’s disorganization represents the inconsistency of this time.
Critics of the Waste Land
Scholars, both early and recent have had different concepts regarding the Waste Land poem, and because of this, criticism took a life of its own as they continually tried to give opinions of what the poem meant and supported. The following section provides the thoughts on ‘the wasteland’ presented by various critics.
Brooker and Bentley: Reading “The Waste Land”: Modernism and the Limits of Interpretation
Among these scholars, Cleanth Brooks was among the most influential critics of his time. Cleanth Brooks is known as the father of current criticism. He is known for his explications of Christian myths. He has a great influence on how the readers of today view Eliot’s poem. Brooks expresses his moral standpoint of the poetry in the introduction of his essay when he talks about good and evil. He supports it by quoting Eliot that it is in human nature to do good or evil. ‘The Waste Land’ explains that man has lost his ability to practice good or evil. (Bentley 106). He goes on to explain that if a man does evil or good, he proves his existence. The modern wasteland is viewed as a kingdom whose residents do not exist since they cannot tell the difference of evil and good. Brooks sees the tangible ‘Wasteland’ of the poem as a representative of today’s world where people have diverse culture and beliefs. (Bentley 106). Brooks perceptive reading of ‘The Waste Land’ has stood out since then. Before Brooks critics, not many people a complete understanding on the book. His explanation is as easy as any literature beginning student could want. Both Brook and Joseph Bentley used a philosophical viewpoint to approach Eliot’s poem. The understood ‘The Waste Land’ as the devotion to the science of interpretation. Therefore, this places the poem at the heart of modern criticism. (Bentley 16)
In the first chapter, Brook and Bentley discussed western civilisation that was attracting scientists and philosophers’ attention. The readers will find some modernism survey familiar to them. In their second chapter, they stated the specific ideas of personal and philosophical concepts that helped them read and analyse the ‘The Waste Land’ poem. Brooks and Bentley’s book Reading “, The Waste Land”: Modernism and the Limits of Interpretation,” shows how closely they read ‘The Waste Land’ poem. They suggested that Eliot’s text is self-limiting different from how the earlier critics conceived it. Eliot virtually eliminated transitions to call for the attention of readers as they read his poem. Brook felt that the poem lacked the signals that normally move the reader from one stanza to another and therefore the reader has to be conscious while reading the poem since it lacks the traditional texts and transitions that reveal how parts are related. Brooks and Bentley gave their book the name “Reading ‘The Wasteland,” because they realised the importance of a close reading of the text in insights when reading the poem. The subtitle ‘Modernism and the Limits of Interpretation,’ was used to reveal that the texts in ‘Wasteland’ present themselves as linguistic structures. The text in the ‘Waste Land’ move the attention from the meaning of words to meaning of meaning. The imagination of the interpreter is the only thing that limits the interpretation of the of this poem. (Bentley 21). It means that Eliot’s poem analysis has different ways. Interpretation, however, is limited in what it can achieve, its usefulness and its applicability. There is no interpretation applicable in all seasons, while some interpretation seems useless to everyone else but the reader. Brooks and Bentley’s in their book, try to break the tension between limitations and un-limitedness of interpretation.
Brooks and Bentley used several principles of interpretation of Eliot’s poem. The first principle states that interpretation has to take into account the systematic nature of judgment and that every judgment involves context that complicates the relations of parts or parts of a whole. Poet’s own epistemological field has to be evident in the reading by showing informed intellectual contexts. Brooks agreed that no reader, despite the energy and competence, can reconstruct Eliot’s mind. However, the reader can learn something from his mind and use boundaries in the process of reading without preventing misreading. Brooks and Bentley’s second principle states that the readers have to differentiate between external and internal interpretations. Internal interpretation is the one made by a character in the poem itself while external is the one made by the reader. When reading a poem, interpreting of interpretations is involved. For example, in the opening lines of “The Love Song of J.Alfred Prufrock” are interpretations made by a character in the poem. (Brooks, Cleanth.106). It is the responsibility of the reader to interpret these interpretations to make sense of the poem. The third interpretation principle derives from exceptional importance in Eliot’s poetry of literal meanings. Eliot use of simple texts with literal accuracy and philosophical terms combined with precision caused discontentment to his critics. (Bentley 31) Eliot used a lot of illusion, for example, he spoke of their illusion of being disillusioned as opposed to I.A. Richards who spoke of the disillusionment of a generation. In his notes of ‘The Waste Land,’ he proves that no one is free from illusion when he refers to “what Teiresias sees.” He is using texts with technical precision. Literal meanings in poetry are vital tools. In the fourth principle according to Brook, is related to the fact that the manner of modern painters, Eliot forces the aspect of more than one perceptiveness to his readers. Eliot juxtapositions several perspectives of the same object or idea. The approach helps us to understand that every idea has its limitations and the goodness of moving from perception to another and that of understanding more than one perception at once. For example, the female portrait in the centre of the poem, comprehends the facets of Cleopatras as pub gossip, the temporary woman at her dressing table among other perceptions. The fifth principle that explains ‘The Waste Land’ poem involves openness to text understanding and failures of interpretation at the same time. Eliot demands that we interpret and undermines all interpretations at the same time. In his poem, when Madame Sostris tells her client to “fear death by water,” the reader is always pulled towards an interpretative process. (Brooks[b] 15) The reader, at the same time, realises that his or her interpretations are associated with paranoid fortune teller with a bad cold. Recognition of difficult texts that both insist upon and a failure of interpretation is the final principle. According to Brook and Bentley, ‘The Waste Land’ forces us to interpret as opposed to rewarding as with some truth. For example, the statement in Eliot’s poem “April is the cruellest month,” draws us away from the text itself as we try to interpret what it means. This forces to push the text aside as we concentrate on the interpretation process. When one, in this process, discovers that the results of interpretation are inconclusive, leads us to abandon the interpretation and focus on the texts. The mind wanders out of the text, finds and weighs the meanings and lastly returns to the texts. It is called a “hermeneutical loop.”
Brook claimed in his book that Eliot used the analogy between the fourth dimension and the search for a new perception in art. In other words, he thought of this dimension while relating it to literary forms. Eliot work was not much about modern art. However, it is possible he paid little attention to it. It would, therefore, be wrong to classify him together with the cubist, futurist or vorticists although he shared some of the mentality of these artists. Being a graduate student in Paris at a time when arts experiment of the daily news makes him contemporary with these artists. Eliot’s poem was classified between “Review of contemporary art” in which provocative language of underlying revolution in the painting is explained and “Progression” a vorticist design by Etchells. (Brooks[b] 13). Eliot’s works are evidence that he was working his way out of the traditional literary structure. Several critics have argued the relevance of experimentation of modern art to Eliot’s ‘The Waste Land’ poetry. For example, Joseph Frank commented on Eliot’s work in his historical essay on a special form of modern literature. Jacob Kong’s described the parallels between modern painters’ techniques used in ‘The Waste Land.’ Abandonment of single perception is the most distinguishing feature of cubists forms. Single-perception theory was an invalid view that it exists somewhere. Perspective in cubism is destabilised as the viewer is placed in constant motion. There is an extended relationship between the object and the subject. In ‘Wasteland’ the images, de-form, dissolve, melt and overlap. There is no traditional aspect of wholeness; rather fragmentation is used. Eliot was aware of science, philosophy and other arts since he had spent most his time as a student of philosophy before writing his ‘Wasteland’ poem.
Traditional mind, as opposed to modern mind, tended to view things holistically. The idea fascinated Eliot and artists of his time. An example of modern consciousness is in “The Burial of the Dead.” It is one of the “Unreal City” in Eliot’s poem. (Bentley 96)London is the ideal city; however, the poet uses allusions and juxtapositions of contemporary London. Eliot’s talks of people flowing over The London Bridge and down the King William Street, a place reserved to those that do not qualify to go to heaven, those that could not choose between good or evil when they were alive. The speech of Stetson that follows is for those that never dealt with good or bad, those that Eliot referred to as dead while alive. Many readers wonder how the dead, whether a hero or peasant in this speech maintains the fertility of the soil. This question is unconsciously answered that the corpse maintains fertility as long as it remains buried in the soil, where it decomposes and releases nutrients. (Bentley 68). Eliot’s had lots of knowledge on the contemporary epistemological crisis was at peak because he was then writing a dissertation on Bradley who was a representative of neorealism. Figures such as Sybil of Cumae and Tiresias cannot be grouped as humans neither can they be classified as extraordinary beings such as saints. These are mythical creatures. They are also outside of space and time. Sybil in Eliot’s poem, for example, can figure out the history of Rome in a single picture. However, she has lost her mythical perspective since she is imprisoned in a jar this deprives her ability to see systems from inside and outside. (Brooks[b] 78)
Eliot, before writing his poem, he was reading Miss Weston’s book ‘From Ritual to Romances.’ The masterpiece influenced his poem a lot. The story of the ‘The Kingfisher’ whose kingdom was in deep sexual sins was from ‘The Ritual and Romance’ book he had earlier read. Europe then appeared to be spiritual ‘Waste Land, laid waste by Modern man’s sexual sins. (Bentley 61). Oedipus had sex with his mother which caused suffering to his country. The King Fishers soldiers became impotent, and his land suffered famine when he mesmerized the nuns. The modern world is also a wasteland due to sins of sex, lust and all materials of Civilisation. Brook describes Eliot to be a conscious write, unlike any other artists. He glues his face to the grim realities of this world. The Modern world is represented in his literature works by drawing attention to the sins of the modern world. Eliot’s poem represents problems of our modern world and explains lack of spirituality of today (Brooks[b] 26). He says that most people today are spiritually and intellectually important. Eliot tries to explain the source of all the worldly problems. Eliot’s work is the epitome of English classical poetry. He continues to explain the death of spirituality. Modern man has lost his spirituality or rather he is spiritually dead. “The Burial of the Dead” explains the second part, which is “A Game of Chess.” The distinguishing feature of this section that a reader may easily be blinded is the contrast between the two kinds of line. The Philomena passage is of importance as well. It explains how Waste Land became waste in the first place. This passage also talks about the theme of death. Her sufferings transformed the woman that was raped into a night gale. Sufferings seem to be Eliot’s favourite when it comes to poetry. (Bentley 46). Shakespeare too was occupied by the struggle. They both use their personal and private agonies into something rich and strange and impersonal. There is a relationship between “The Game of Chess” to Middletown’s play, ‘Women be aware Women’ from which it was taken. In this play, the game keeps the widow busy as her daughter is being seduced. Just like Philomela the widow’s daughter is almost raped where rape is described as a game. In the second part of this subtitle, the emptiness of spirituality is explained. Ophelia in this passage is concerned about love. (Bentley 58)
Cleanth Brooks approved the modern poetry that doesn’t extend ridiculous extremes of romance and sentimentalities. The Wasteland, after it was published in 1922, became the epitome of the modernist text evident in its non-metaphysical. During the Brooks time, when he was writing ‘Modern Poetry and the Tradition, there was a common view that the romantics had broken the neoclassical concept which affected the literary revolution. However, the modernist poets had taken that revolution steps further. Brooks saw the Romantic revolution as bogus. The romantic poets attacked the rising neoclassical poetry and tried to offer new poetic elements rather than getting rid of the conception of a special poetic material. (Brooks[b] 52). The romantics failed to be sufficiently revolutionary and therefore, perpetuated the dissociation of sensibility introduced into the English poetry. Today, Modern poets are not extending Romantic revolution.
Brooks makes his plan very clear and understandable to his readers. He has ensured that his analysis is apart from Eliot’s poem. Brooks has rigidity in “scaffolding” metaphor which contrasts how one views his poem. The “scaffolding” is like the poem’s framework which guides the readers as they read the poem. During buildings construction, its architecture and aesthetics are only revealed after the scaffolds are removed. Brooks cited his focus on Jessie Weston’s ‘Ritual to Romance.’ (Bentley 97). Brooks is right to say that Eliot also suggests a reading. Brook ends the introduction of his essay by discussing good and bad. Brooks uses Eliot’s words that one must do either good or evil. Brooks contradicted himself when he talked about history and the Wasteland. “The Waste Land” is taken to be a foil against history. Some traditions described in the Waste Land are upsetting to Brook such as that says ‘The Wasteland” is an arid place full of rocks and with no water. The vegetation died just as the souls of people in Waste Land. Brooks aligned himself with Weston and Frazer who compare the false beliefs and Christian beliefs. Brooks concluded his work by describing unity. However, it is explained to be in a fluid form since Eliot implies “melting” as a history of unifying. It should be noted that Brooks does not talk much about design and methods used in Eliot’s poem. He describes Eliot in most of his statements as a strategist in a hostile environment who is trying to win affection.
Lawrence Rainy: The Annotated Waste Land with Eliot’s Contemporary Prose
“The Annotated Waste Land with Eliot’s Contemporary Prose” by Lawrence Rainey uses literary brilliance to alter our knowledge of T.S. Elliot’s poetic masterpiece, “The Waste Land.” Lawrence Rainey uses this book to expound further on Eliot’s greatest accomplishments and sheds more light on the poem’s place in the modern society. “The Wasteland” was once publicized as the greatest poetic masterpiece of the twentieth century. While some scholars have regarded “The Wasteland” as a masterpiece, Rainey has criticized the unclear and complicated nature of the poem. Maybe the main reason the poem is seen as powerful is the fact that it has for a very long time survived through the affection of its die-hard admirers (Rainey 40). To support this argument, Rainey has used reviews from various critics. Conrad Aiken believed the poem was a success because it was illogical and ambiguous (Rainey 35). John Peale Bishop, an ambitious American poet, describes “The Wasteland” as massive, magnificent and terrible after reading it for about five times (Rainey 33). John was not able to identify the main the ideas in the poem notably the episode involving the fortune teller. The king my father and the king my brother are strange words that bring more puzzle to the reader (Rainey 33).
Rainey’s first criticism of the poem was published in the 1998 book “Institutions of Modernism: Literary Elites and Public Culture.” “The Annotated Waste Land with Eliot’s Contemporary Prose” narrates how Eliot wrote the poem and the steps he took to compose each chapter. Rainey uses the book to describe the genesis of Eliot’s poem and the printing history. The book also gives us a brief background of Eliot’s early life. This paper shall describe the ideas presented in “The Annotated Waste Land with Eliot’s Contemporary Prose,” by Lawrence Rainey.
In his book, Rainey expresses disappointment in the composition of “The Wasteland.” New readers who have just come across Eliot’s poem would be very disappointed on discovering that the masterpiece contains two versions (Rainey 17). The first version was published by Valerie – Eliot’s second wife – in 1971. The first version was known as “The Waste Land: A Facsimile and Transcription of the Original Drafts. The publication comprised of photographic copies and transcriptions of all the poem’s existing prepublication articles. These two forms of the poetry have become a crucial reason for criticism. The major problem with them is the fact that they were undated. As most critics highlighted at the time, the two versions were un-dated, therefore making scholars give a speculative sequence of events (Rainey 17). All these speculative chronologies resulted in the reconstruction of the actual time frame in which Eliot wrote the various sections of his poem. For a very long time, it was believed that a section of Part III was the first to be constituted. Many people were of the opinion that this section contained the main idea of Eliot’s poetry (Rainey 17). However, this belief was entirely speculative and based on guesswork rather than carrying an in-depth analysis of the manuscript. Many people found their opinions on the typewriter used to print different sections of the poem. There were noticeable differences between the machines used to print Part I, II and III of the poem. The typewriter used in Part III was not the same as that used to write Part I and II (Rainey 17). Nevertheless, these speculations were overthrown in 2004 after a scholar carefully examined these two typewriters and papers used by Eliot during this period. The machine used to type Part III was new while that used in Part I and II was the one that Eliot used most of the time.
“The Annotated Waste Land with Eliot’s Contemporary Prose” further criticizes the poem’s text using the publication history. Eliot’s poem emerged in several editions. The first was published in Criterion’s October issue and had no notes. The second version was issued around 20th October and also did not have notes. Another one was published in Dial’s November issue. The last edition was published in December, and it contained notes that were printed in a small book released by Boni and Liveright – American publishers. Great priority is placed in the first edition that was published by Criterion because Eliot took part in the supervision of the issue (Rainey 45). The poem text was adversely affected after Eliot used different publishers to publish his manuscript. The corrections made in the different editions affected the flow of the poem. For instance, the December issue contained several errors that affected the lines of the poem. The Boni and Liveright version had eight mistakes, and one impending variation is, therefore, affecting seventeen lines in the poem (Rainey 48). One such mistake was the use of the word “od” instead of using “oed.” An observant reader can pinpoint these mistakes easily. Eliot failed to note these mistakes hence affected the flow the poem. People reading the poem may misinterpret the message of the poem due to grammatical errors. Apart from these errors, the different versions of the poem lacked consistency due to punctuation mistakes and failure to cite titles. These mistakes were left unnoticed for a very long time. Eliot did not bother to proofread his work (Rainey 51). Also, it is worth noting the lineation of the poem was not consistent with the different versions.
Publishing Eliot’s poem was one problem; writing and editing it would be another problem as illustrated in “The Annotated Waste Land with Eliot’s Contemporary Prose.” Eliot was concerned by the fact that Part III did not have a well-executed ending. Part III was overwhelmed by the extended lyrics sung by the Thames daughters, and this made Eliot have doubts on the poem (Rainey 22). There were no connections in the endings of Part III. Eliot tried to rectify this problem by composing an additional passage that contained seventeen lines. These new lines were designed such that they create a steady flow of ideas and improve the flow of the poem. Rainey believes that these new lines adversely affected the composition of the poem. Our area of interest, however, is not the success or failure of the passage but with the order in which it was influencing the composition of the poem (Rainey 22). Eliot presented his work to Ezra Pound for advice and suggestions. Eliot had doubts about his project when he showed it to Pound. The uncertainty resulted in more editing after following Pound’s advice. Pound convinced Eliot to delete vast portions of stories that furnished the introductions of parts I, III and IV of the poem (Rainey 23). He also removed significant parts of Part III that formed the plot of the poem. Moreover, Eliot made other minor editorial changes hence eliminating isolated words and phrases. The changes modified the poetry as we know it today.
Richard Ellman
The criticism of Pound regarding The Waste Land did not concentrate on its connotation; in fact, he loved the hopelessness displayed by the poem and was non-judgemental of its neo-Christian aspiration. Instead, his primary focus when making the analysis was the poem’s stylistic competence and originality. For instance, there existed an extensive, disastrous repetition of The Rape of the Lock at the introduction of “The Fire Sermon.” It described lady Fresca – a character imported from The Waste Land from “Gerontion.” Fresca is going to it like Joyce’s loom instead of making her toilet like Pope’s Belinda. Pound notified Eliot that there was no point in another round because Pope had presented the couplets successfully with the help of Joyce. Several lines disappeared due to this shrewd advice. One such line was; the white-armed Fresca blinks and yawns, and gapes (Litz 34). The chapter involving the typist was lengthier and more labor intensive in the beginning. A bright kimono wraps her as she sprawls (Litz 55). Pound did not agree with the décor and found it hard to believe. He advocated for the removal of the stanza ‘Not in that lodging house’ (Litz 55). Pound also advised Eliot to scrap several lines that followed this stanza. He was of the opinion that these lines were over the mark and had to be removed to improve the flow of the poem (Litz 54).
Similarly, Pound persuaded Eliot to remove several verses which were meant to be put in between the segments of the poem and some at the last part of the stanza. An example was the repeated plunge at vulnerable Bleistein, drenched now but yet unfortunately Jewish and comfortable below the water. Pound believed that this poem and other mortuary related works of art did not put in value to Eliot’s masterpiece (Litz 56). By adding more verses to it, The Waste Land would be prolonged. Eliot had by now composed the most extended English poetry, and there was no need to break this record (Litz 56). However, Eliot felt the composition of The Wasteland was limiting to him. He later wrote Fragment of an Agon to try and escape these limits.
Hugh Kenner
The Waste Land had received its final form and title by mid-January 1922. However, “The Burial of the Dead” did not make it to the opening at Cambridge but was lightly interpreted (Litz 46). Pound had seriously worked on the opening of the “A Game of Chess” while Vivien Eliot focused on offering new ideas of making the pub dialogue a success. “The Fire Sermon” was a mess, and it needed more effort in spite of this efforts. Eliot changed the composition of the poem by dismembering Part III. The central theme transformed and longer focused on the urban panorama (Litz 46). The center of gravity had shifted to an urban apocalypse; the beautiful city turned into a desert where several voices shouted from worn out wells. Moreover, the journey that was once characterized by an implicit opening in Cambridge and made its swing through Munich to London had changed to a trip through the Waste Land (Litz 46). A sneak-peek through Pound’s letters reveals that revisions and retyping of Part III were done to achieve a visionary unity that would fascinate different generations of readers.
Likewise, revision of several sections in Part III made Eliot depressed and anxious. He was nervous and considered removing Phlebas despite being advised the poem required Phlebas “absolutely” (Litz 46). He also considered making use of “Gerontion” as prelude despite being instructed otherwise. Eliot was mainly disturbed by the fact that the poem would lose schema. The outcome of these changes resulted in the poem losing its scheme. The main ideas in the poem had changed and what remained was a form without form and a genre without a name (Litz 46). Eliot later recreated the structural lines of The Waste Land, though sketchily in Burnt Norton.
It is also worth noting that The Waste Land was initially not meant to become the poem it is today. The outcome of the poem came to exist through the wreckage of several conceptions (Litz 47). Eliot saw the success of his manuscript after reviewing the mangled drafts of his poetry when he was in London in 1922. He and Pound had worked tirelessly on the poem when they were in Paris before heading to London. Their primary objective during this period did not change the structure, but instead, they intended to distinguish authentic lines from fixed lines and passages (Litz 47). Eliot and Pound revolutionized the history of symbolism by restructuring the contents of the poem.
Lyndall Gordon
Pound’s influence in the composition of The Waste Land went deeper than anyone would have thought. On receiving Eliot’s Lausanne draft, Pound referred to it as “the 19-page version’ implying that had seen other previous versions. He made marks on several sheets in two instances; one was in pencil, and the other was done in ink (Gordon 22). As such, it is right to conclude that Eliot’s masterpiece was initially in shambles. Pound, without doubt, improved certain aspects in the poems passages. His removal of the anti-Semitic portrayal of Bleistein and the misogynist representation of Fresca reduced Eliot’s extreme hostility. Equally, his touch perfected the odd lines in the poem (Gordon 105). Pound was proud of his ideas and even wrote a letter expressing his satisfaction with The Wasteland.
Nevertheless, Lyndall Gordon believed that Pound’s influence went beyond the comments he had made in the letter. The Waste Land represents a psychological hell in which someone is a loner (Gordon 101). The Hugh Selwyn Mauberly (1920) written by Pound contained a secret conversation with Eliot that aired the flaws in the poem. Pound criticizes the poem as being a high fantasy (Gordon 105). Eliot in response removed his most sensitive fragments ‘Saint Narcissus’ and ‘Elegy.’ He also overlaid private mediation with characters such as Fresca, Cockneys and Venus Anadyomene (Gordon 105). Eliot was not happy with how pound perceived these characters. The characters in Eliot’s poems were not as realistic as those from Pound (Gordon 106). They represented projections of Eliot’s troubled consciousness.
Marjorie Perloff
The Waste Land would not be successful without the effort of Pound. The revisions and removals made by Pound created the central themes and symbols in Eliot’s poem (Perloff 77). The ideas in The Waste Land would not be prominent as they were overpowered by satirical intrusions such as “He Do the Police in Different Voices’ in Part I and the Popean couplets about couplet at her toilet at the beginning of Part II (Perloff 77). However, after a careful analysis of the work, it was discovered that the thematic strains in the original Waste Land had not changed despite the corrections made by Pound.
To support this argument, Marjorie Perloff analyses “Death by Water,” which Pound had slashed to ten lines from ninety-two lines. The opening section, written in stanzas that had an abab rhyme, presents a parodic version of Ulysses in the context of a foolish sailor on shore leave (Perloff 79). Pound was of the opinion that the sailor’s voyage was an unnecessary deviation. After reading this section, he gave a bad review on the margin of the manuscript. He wrote that the version was bad, but he couldn’t attack it until he gets the final typescript (Perloff 78). Pound also encouraged Eliot not to omit Phlebas. Eliot wrote to Pound enquiring on whether he should omit Phlebas. Pound replied by expressing that Phlebas is a crucial part of the poem (Perloff 78). Pound knew that “Death by Water” created an important connection between the passage involving Madame Sosostris and the lines that followed in the final sections of Part V. He seemed to have a clear understanding of Eliot’s purpose better than Eliot himself. Eliot expresses these sentiments in one of his notes. Pound first had an understanding of what I was attempting to do and then tried to help me do it in my way (Perloff 78). As such, Pound did not in any way try to change the outlook of The Waste Land, but rather he tried to bring out the best in Eliot. For example, “What the Thunder Said,” was left untouched by Pound because Eliot had virtually discovered his intended theme and brought it into a prompt dramatic ending.
Wayne Koestenbaum
Wayne Koestenbaum criticism offers a different reading of Pound’s Caesarean performance. In assessing Pound’s vague inquiries, I will put aside doubts of literary quality. Placing great emphasis on whether Pound’s recommendations were justified prevents us from seeing other motives for his editing. For that reason, I would love to suggest a different reading of Pound’s Caesarean performance (Koestenbaum 120). Pound did not agree with the idea of starting the poem with an epigraph from Joseph Conrad. His primary objective was to establish Eliot’s dominance in literary history with The Waste Land. Eliot confessed that he gave Pound a manuscript of his chaotic poem while they were in Paris. Pound handled the script as if it were a man with feminine traits of which he wishes to rouse; he suggests that Eliot should scrap off the feminine aspects of the poem. Under no circumstance should your erection grow less – read a section of the letter (Koestenbaum 122). He further urged Eliot to make his language less competent. The contents of the letter written by Pound are paradoxical and homosexually charged.
However, after much consideration, Wayne Koestenbaum believes that Pound’s obstetric letter did not just doubt Conrad’s eminence but also the contents of the epigraph. For example, a paragraph from Heart of Darkness documents a man crying because he feared the dark (Koestenbaum 125). A man yelling because of the night is unheard of and is in most cases regarded as a feminine trait. According to Pound, starting the poem with a cry of terror would not help in keeping Eliot erect (Koestenbaum 125). In spite of this, there is a part of the letter in which Pound criticizes a section of the poem by appreciating the very language of terror he did not like in the epigraph. It also, to your horror perhaps, reads aloud very well; mouthing out his OOOOOOZe (Koestenbaum 125). The letter in this section explains the body of the poem in a dialect of mouths, terror, and blood.
Pound also criticized how Eliot portrayed women by separating The Waste Land from female dread discharge. He used marginal annotations, “Marianne,” to criticize the lines – You gave me hyacinths initially a year ago, / they referred to me as the hyacinth girl (Koestenbaum 125). Eliot derived the term ‘Marianne’ from Pierre Marivaux’s book LA Vie de Marianne. The name belongs to a French heroine in the novel. He further criticized the lines that followed by describing them as photography. Pound condemned these lines for their photographic and wrote photo at the side of the line. Moreover, he asked Eliot if he had anything in his head and whether he was alive or dead (Koestenbaum 125). Another portrayal of a woman that Pound loathed wholeheartedly was the Pope-like couplets describing Fresca. He rejected the whole paragraph containing this description with a note saying that the rhyme had dragged it out of faintness (Koestenbaum 125).
Louis L. Martz
Louis L. Martz evaluates the development of The Waste Land and how it achieved its distinctive structure. The structure of The Waste Land was unique such that it inspired the development ‘Burn Norton’ into a five-part structure (Lobb 194). Pound receives credit for being the mastermind behind the poem’s structure. Eliot’s masterwork would not consist of the short lyrics of Four Quartets were it not for Pound’s editorial intervention (Lobb 194). ‘Phlebas the Phoenician’ which appears in Part IV of The Waste Land would also not exist.
Then again, Eliot was initially not happy with Pound’s editorial deletions. On receiving the manuscript Pound slashed away eight-two lines that preceded these lyrics in the poem (Lobb 193). In response, Eliot wrote to pound enquiring whether he should also delete Phlebas. Pound was astonished by this inquiry since he knew how Phlebas played a crucial role in the structure of the poem. I highly advise you to retain Phlebas since it is an integral part of the poem – read the response by Pound (Lobb 193). The content of the reaction by Pound is the kind of arrangement that Eliot would later call musical in his ‘Music of Poetry’ lecture that he gave in 1942.
Another structural change was the removal of the monologue that set off The Waste Land manuscript. The oration was by an unruly Irishman describing his experience at night in a city in Boston (Lobb 192). Eliot did the modification under the guidance of Pound. Eliot probably did not feel like the voice of rowdy men singing in the footrace while drank was in harmony with the vocal sound that followed in the next verse (Lobb 193). The lines that follow this stanza represent a prophetic voice. The tone is prophetic in the sense that it offers the comfort of a good future (Lobb 194). This form of support and consolation is also present in Pound’s Cantos.
David Chinitz
David Chinitz is of the opinion that The Waste Land is a problematic piece of work to analyze. The Waste Land is much more complicated since the script that Eliot composed is entirely different from the published copy (Chinitz 1). David also believes that Pound altered the importance of the poem about the modern world. The Waste Land would be successful in setting up a central, current theme of poetry had Pound not scrapped most of Eliot’s contents in his original manuscript (Chinitz 8). Even though Pound played a considerable role in making the poem a success, he did not consider the modernistic view when editing The Waste Land. His modifications made the poem dull making it loose its cultural appeal (Chinitz 8). Therefore, according to David Chinitz, the poem would be more appealing had Eliot published his original poem without editorial modifications by Pound. Lines such as – Sopped up some gin, sat into the cock game was appealing since they portrayed techniques of juxtaposition (Chinitz 8). Pound advised Eliot to delete these lines hence changing the structure of the poem.
Jean-Michel Rabaté
The obscene changes in which the poem went through transformed its current version. Jean-Michel Rabaté’s criticism emphasized more on the disjunctive aspect of the collaboration between Pound and Eliot. The blind spot in their partnership is what I would refer to as textual ghosts (Rabaté 13). The genuine spirit created by the connecting and separating relationship between Pound and Eliot was in a real sense just a word. The combined effort by these two provides a rationale for the modern perspective (Rabaté 17). Eliot wrote a letter to his friend in Britain admitting that he felt like the poem brought into view both the ‘cultural’ and ‘civilization aspects of poetry (Rabaté 13). Eliot chose to pick a quote from Our Mutual Friend to showcase the polyphonic trait of the contemporary urban civilization. Pound also opted to erase his random motif. Pound’s point of historical deviation drew its inspiration from the American Revolution (Rabaté 15). This period marked the beginning of the modern world. As such, Pound’s precise mode of systemization resulted in him embracing Mussolini as his symbolic father. The literary ghost of modernity displayed by Pound and Eliot’s ideas were expressed efficiently in the poem. They finally introduced sublimation of modernism into academic literature.
CHAPTER 2: MODERNITY IN “THE WASTELAND”
Many believe that The Waste Land’s style and content was the origin of Modernist Movement in literature. The characteristics of this poem are often regarded as the exact definition of modern poetry. One can compare the attributes of this poem and the attributes of traditional poetry to realize the precise distinction between the two. Three main characteristics of Eliot’s poem namely tone, fragmentation, and allusion will be used in defining modern poetry. This chapter will also present the general features of traditional poetry and then compare them with the characteristics of Eliot’s poem. In doing so, the chapter will paint a picture of the distinction between modern poetry and traditional poetry. On top of this, the section will go on and highlight the characteristics that make Eliot’s poem a modern poem and evidence of how the poem has influenced modern poetry.
Eliot’s poem ‘The Waste Land’ is one of the published works of literature that resulted in the Modernist Movement. He contributed tremendously to the Anglo-American Modernism. Eliot in his work tried to eliminate the aspect of romantics as opposed to traditional poets. So many diverse techniques are observed in Eliot’s poem. One of the techniques used by the poet is historical, cultural and literary references to past epochs and traditions. The techniques used in the poem shape the immense panorama of futility and anarchy which is contemporary history (Al-Mahdi p.9). This structure observed in the Waste Land is one of the aspects that makes it one of the modern poems. This poem is fragmented into ‘a combination of many poems’ which lead to disorganization of the poem. The poet links the fragmentation to the modern life’s complexity. More to this, the poem does not transition from one section to another. Therefore, the pattern lacks unity and proper organization of the material into a single meaning (Gish, 29). Eliot at the beginning of the poem uses an epigraph that serves the purpose of introducing the theme. The epigraph also invokes the readers’ mood before he or she starts to read the body (Friedrich, p, 221). The four hundred and thirty-four lines long poem has five unequally divided parts which consist of several interruptions that hinder linear narration. However, all the five sections are related to Eliot’s work in one way or another to facilitate the passing of the poem’s overall message (Wayne, p, 202). Another modern aspect of the poem is the way that the poet, throughout his poem, used all sort of characters. For example, he used Phlebas as the Phoenician, Madame Sosostris as the fortune teller and an ancient sailor who in this poem is seen to drown and many other characters that are perceived to weave in and out without any kind of relations, which proves the disorganization of the poem.
Definition of Modernist Movement in Poetry
The subject matter of modernist poems is to deal with issues that are characteristically modern (Whitworth 19). These issues include but not limited to the accelerated pace of urban life. Modernist Movement in Poetry can be defined as a poetic movement that intends to “show itself equal to the challenges posed by modernity” (Whitworth 19). That is why this kind of poems tackles subjects and themes that are characteristically modern. The time of origin is also essential when defining this movement. Since they say that Eliot’s poem is the origin of this movement, and the poem was first published in 1922, then the Modernist Movement in Poetry dates back to the early 20th century. Moreover, a brief of the various features of this movement can better the understanding of it.
Many modern poets argue that the contemporary life issues are very complicated. They need advanced strategies to solve them. People in the modern society have lost their sense of morality resulting in a broken world. During the period of war in the First World War, people lost their spirituality and got detached from emotions leading to a reduced sense of morality. Loss of emotions added to the daunting challenges the modern society is facing hence making everything even more complicated. When the theorists of Modernist Movement in Poetry looked at a stylistic way they can present this complexity, they came up with the idea of fragmentation. Most long modern poems are fragmented into sections. Each section is a unique poem that does not relate to the others. Neither do these sections transition smoothly from one to another. The fragmentation makes the whole poem very disorganized just like the modern life. In other words, fragmentation evident in Eliot’s poetry represents modern life’s complexity (Haralson 19).
Another thing that was noted among modern poets is that they mostly use allusion in their pieces. Haralson maintained that since modernists believed that Ezra Pound’s “Make it New” is a sacred obligation, they intended to use allusion as an exciting feature in their literary works (302). They, however, believed that to make it new and break with the old, writers must know their literary history. As such, they made several references to classical Greek myth and used allusions to create a modernist feel and touch in their literary works.
Modern poems are also characterized by the use of a tone that is consistent with the mood of modernity. As mentioned earlier, the contemporary society experiences very complex challenges. The idea of modernity is believed to have originated from the experiences of the First World War. People became hopeless and felt displaced. They went through the cruelest days on earth. Thus, the tone used in modern poetry aligns with the contemporary life’s complexity.
Characteristics of Traditional Poetry
Traditional poetry was developed the time which morals and values were clearly defined. This is somewhere in the fifteenth century when even the printing press had not been invented. There were no televisions or any other form of entertainment other than word of mouth. The message in the poem could be passed to the audience through word of mouth. This meant that the poem had also to be interesting to listen to. Due to the well-defined morals and values of this period, most poems were mainly used to condemn an immoral behavior such as infidelity in marriage, the cold-hearted, the greed, and the cruel people. It is due to these historical circumstances that traditional poems had specific characteristics.
Traditional poems are known to follow specific rhyme schemes and metric patterns. They are very strict in developing these features among others that need a lot of effort to master. A traditional poet had to come up with an ordered pattern of rhymes at the end of lines. A traditional poet also had to come up with a regular pattern of beats, or meter. The significance of meter and rhyme scheme in poetry is to make the poem sound musical. The need to make a poem musical during those times was to attract the audience to listen to the message provided that there were no print press and the electronic media (Baer 18). Thus, it is conclusive that most traditional poems were oral and that is why they had to have a rhyme scheme and meter.
Although meter and rhyme are the main characteristics of traditional poetry, traditional poems’ tone is also unique to them. A traditional poet could, for instance, go to the marketplace and set his or her equipment ready to ‘sing’ to his or her audience. The central message that could be passed here had to rhyme to the mood of traditionalism. The poets portrayed great respect for nature and the profound conservative values of the traditional societies (Baer 24). Additionally, some well-known poems were a story being told in a song. Thus, when a poet went to an ordinary social gathering such as the marketplace, he or she could narrate a story in a song that was in the form of a poem. The story had some traditional meaning, and it was up to the audience to learn lessons from the story. As mentioned earlier, the story could revolve around any case of immorality or disobedience to societal beliefs and values.
Characteristics of ‘The Waste Land’ by T. S. Eliot
As mentioned earlier, since Eliot’s poem is regarded as a modern piece, exploring its characteristics will further the understanding of the features of contemporary poetry. The three elements of modern poetry discussed earlier in this paper are conspicuous in Eliot’s poem. They include a tone that aligns with the mood of modernity, allusions, and fragmentation. Other styles present in the poem include the use of different voices among others. Each of these styles will be discussed in detail to paint a clear picture of modern poetry.
Fragmentation is a noticeable characteristic of the poem. It consists of five sections, and each section lacks a consistent rhyme scheme and meter, so it can be referred to like free verse. Neither are the five sections logical concerning length. Moreover, another thing that is noticeable in Eliot’s poem is that he was concerned with the psychology or rather the inner world of the characters. Due to this fragmentation, it can be said that the poem cannot be seen as a narrative or a story. Additionally, within this fragmentation, Eliot showed a disjointed timeline. The plot of the poem from section to section is not easy to follow or rather it does not have a plot one can follow from the beginning to the end. While reading from section to section one can feel intimidated if it is for the first time because one will encounter different kinds of characters throughout the sections that do not seem related in any way. For example, the Phlebas the Phoenician and Sosostris the fortune teller seems unrelated, and the reader cannot connect them in the poem in any manner. They seem to just weave in and out in the poem.
Allusion, shout-outs to other works, is also a visible characteristic of this poem. The second section, “A Game of Chess” is an allusion to a game of chess played in a 1967 tragedy play known as Women Beware Women by Thomas Middleton. He also made references to Tiresias in Part III which is Greek mythology. References to Phoenicia and Shakespeare are also common in the poem. Haralson who at first wonders how to make it new when referring to classical works explains that Eliot’s intentions of referring to classical literary tragedies and dramas were to show the need to know one’s literary history to break with old and make it new (302). Unless one has a sound knowledge of the literature or can look at the detailed footnotes of the poem, it is almost impossible to understand the message in the poem. By alluding to the classical literary works, Eliot conjectured and agreed with Ezra Pound’s motto “make it new.” In this case, ‘make it new’ meant accepting the reduced sense of morality and values in the society due to the First World War. The period of war also complicated human life, and hence there was a need to break with the old and make everything new.
The tone used in the poem aligns with the mood of modernity. The atmosphere of the modern era can be described from the encounters of the First World War. It is well documented that people lost their sense of morality and values because of hopelessness. People felt that the world fell apart because they frequently lost their loved ones and the economic situations were extremely harsh. Life problems became extremely complex to solve at that time using human capacity. The tone used in this poem can be justified with the widely-known line “April is the cruelest month…” Alongside the title of the poem, the line shows that the poem is about incredible human experiences. These experiences happened in the post-World War I period as portrayed by Eliot, which is outside the reasonable expectations that since the war has ended, there could be rebirth, fresh starts, and happiness. In other words, the modern life is full of challenges. The tone Eliot uses is consistent with these experiences of contemporary life.
The manner in which Eliot has used voices in the poem is also unique and characteristic of the Modernist Movement in Poetry. There is a lot of weaving in and out in the poem, and one would expect dramatic monologues and voices of consciousness. However, this is not the case in the poem. Different characters have used different voices, but the poet does not portray any difference between them. For example, in ‘The Burial of the Dead,’ the first section, Eliot uses a character known as Marie who is an aristocrat. While recalling her time in Munich as a young child, Marie talks about her cousin who took her out on a sled and she was petrified. On the other hand, in the second section, ‘A Game of Chess,’ Eliot uses two women conversing in a bar as the bartender announces the closing time. The bartender comes in shouting “Hurry up please it’s time.” From the two characters, it is evident in the poem that they are using a very different voice and yet it is not indicated anywhere if the two are different. Eliot does not even use quotation marks to distinguish the conversation of the two women from the voice of the bartender. The reader must figure it out on own or misunderstand the whole verse. The central theme here is that the reader gets very distinct people guiding him or her through the poem.
Differences between Traditional Poetry and Eliot’s
‘The Waste Land’ as a Modern Poem
From the previous sections of this paper, the differences between traditional poetry and modern poetry are conspicuous. One of the main differences is the use of rhythm and meter. Whereas traditional poems strictly use a consistent rhyme scheme and metric patterns, modern poems are free verses. Eliot neither paid attention to an ordered pattern of rhymes at the end of lines nor a regular pattern of beats. The reason behind this difference has been outlined earlier in this paper that traditional poets had to come up with symphonic poems to attract the attention of the audience because the oral narration was the only available means to pass the message. Modern poets paid no attention to making a poem sound musical because there were a lot of means through which they could reach the audience other than oral narration.
Another difference is the use of voices. It was notable that Eliot never minded distinguishing two voices in verse. It is entirely up to the reader to differentiate between two voices because there are no quotation marks. On the other hand, traditional poetry used only one voice to guide the reader from the beginning to the end. The voice could be that of the poet or someone else narrating the story in the poem. The use of two or more distinct voices to guide the reader is evident in Eliot’s poem, especially in the second section. The reason why contemporary poets adopted this style is not apparent. However, it should also be noted that modern poems do not strictly use multiple distinct voices in the same verse. The only difference with traditional poems is that modern poems can sometimes use more than one voice in verse. Traditional poetry strictly uses one voice in verse.
Fragmentation is another main difference between traditional poetry and modern poetry. Regardless of length, classical poems tend to have a seamless plot that the reader can follow from the beginning to the end. Interestingly, the voice used in verse is same from the start to the end. This is unlike modern poems that mostly use fragmentation. Eliot fragmented his poetry into five separate sections. There is no plot to follow from section to section, and the whole poem seems disorganized. The rationale behind fragmentation was explained earlier in this paper that it depicts the nature of the modern life’s complexity. It is hard to understand the complexity of modern life.
Additionally, despite the structural and stylistic differences between traditional and modern poetry, there are also some similarities. Both use allusions, symbolism, and metaphors. The main difference between the two is the usage of the styles. The manner in which Eliot alludes to classical texts and literary works is very different from traditional poetry. For example, the second section of Eliot’s poem, ‘A Game of Chess,’ is an allusion to the chess played in Women Beware Women by Thomas Middleton. Finding a traditional poem alluding in that manner is hard. Most traditional poems would rather use a word or a phrase that was used in another poem or any other literary work. Eliot’s poem itself is a metaphor for the contemporary life as discussed earlier. The way it was structured (fragmentation) is a depiction of the modern life’s complexity. Traditional poems would only use metaphoric words or phrases within lines. Overall, the manner in which traditional and modern poetry use allusions, metaphors, and symbolism should be investigated deeply to spot the similarities and differences.
Characteristics that Make Eliot’s ‘The Waste Land’ a Modern Poem
The central assumption that has been made in this paper is that Eliot’s poem is a modern poem and it is the origin of the Modernist Movement in Poetry. Therefore, it is essential to justify this supposition. First, Eliot’s poem is the very first piece of poetry to have used fragmentation with no attention to rhythm and meter. Lewis quotes Ezra Pound who said, “Eliot’s Waste Land is I think the justification of the ‘movement,’ of our modern experiment, since 1900” shortly after the publication of the poem in 1922 (129). It was also noted earlier in this paper that Ezra Pound’s motto ‘Make It New’ primarily influenced the structure and styles that Eliot used in ‘The Waste Land.’ Due to Pound’s remarks, it is evident that this poem was the very first to be published as a modern poem. The structural and stylistic characteristics (tone, allusion, and fragmentation) of this poem were influenced by the motto “Make It New,” which is thought to have been the foundation for the Modernist Movement. The Modernist Movement encompassed all aspects of life, and it is Eliot who brought it to poetry. Therefore, it is justifiable that the use of fragmentation, a tone that aligns with the atmosphere of modernity, allusion, and two or more voices in verse are some of the characteristics that make Eliot’s ‘The Waste Land’ a modern poem.
How Eliot’s The Waste Land Has Influenced Modern Poetry
It is widely acknowledged that Eliot’s poem is the leading influencer of modern poetry. This is true because modern poems that were published after ‘The Waste Land’ used the same structural and stylistic techniques. When it was first published, many people did not agree with it, and its structure and content was widely criticized. This was perhaps because of its novelty and the fact that due to its complexity and disorganization, people did not understand it. It took almost a decade for people to understand the true meaning of the poem. This is the time the poem became widely accepted, and other poets started modeling it. This means that traditional poets freely published their works between 1922 and early 1930s. It is also documented that Ezra Pound helped him to make the poem acceptable to the society. Pound cut some sections of ‘The Waste Land’ making it one of the best pieces (Barzinji 885). The piece became even more influential when he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1948. By understanding the true meaning of the poem, people accepted it because it depicted the atmosphere of the modern era.
This chapter has evidentially proved that Eliot’s ‘The Waste Land’ has greatly influenced modern poetry. Almost all modern poems have the structural and stylistic characteristics that were first portrayed by Eliot in the poem. Some of these characteristics include fragmentation, use of tone that is consistent with the mood of the modern era, allusion, and the use of more than one voices in the narration. Eliot was the first English poet to use them uniquely in his ‘The Waste Land,’ and therefore he is widely acknowledged to have informed the Modernist Movement in Poetry.
CHAPTER 3: REBIRTH AS REPRESENTED BY STYLISTIC DEVICES USED
Authors use myths and allusions in literature for different reasons. When myths and suggestions are used say in poetry, it helps the reader to see familiar things in the fictional world which draws them into that world. Becoming familiar helps them to put aside the disbelief and become absorbed in the poetry world without a doubt. The authors use different references with which most people are ordinary. Inspiration could be another reason. Writers read other writers works and draw insight from them hence this is where most of the authors get their inspiration. For example, most stories about superheroes get inspiration from myths of the Messiah. Christians, therefore, can relate since their religion entails some tales in the form of promises, prophesies and the coming of messiahs and prophets; the Bible has recorded all these events. In novel writing, it is essential for the novelist to use the myths that were common at the time the author wrote the novel. The author should know of these myths and be in a position to share them. There are many other reasons why authors use myths in literary works; the reason for using a specific legend depends on the message that the author wants to convey (Chinitz p.2). Sometimes tales can be used as a counterexample when they tell an opposing story to the one used. One can consider these factors to understand why Eliot used myths in a particular masterpiece such as the ‘Waste Land’ poem. One form of relationship between myths and literature is that myths are used in works of literature. There are two types of myths used in literary works such as ‘Waste Land’ poem. These include classical and biblical mythology. In classical mythology, ancient figures, themes, and events are referred to while in spiritual belief the myths are based on Bible stories. Both are found in all literature works such as music, arts, and films. Classical faith can be traced for more than two thousand years, while biblical doctrine has only been sustained after the rise of religion which it remains to be part of (Chinitz p.2).
Allusions are literary techniques that stimulate ideas, past experiences, and events in a readers’ mind. They rely on the readers understanding them and being familiar with all the meanings hidden in them. Allusions in poems help to boost the reader’s understanding by evoking a mental picture in his or her mind. Authors derive their allusions from the bible, nursery rhymes, myths or famous historical characters and events. For example, throughout his notes, the poet refers to the book of Ezekiel, Isaiah and Psalms in the bible as a tool to help the reader hold it together and make sense of our lives today (Chinitz p.15). The poet used characters from novels of his time. The use of allusions, by any poet or author, shows an expectation that the reader is aware or rather familiar with the reference made in the allusion. Eliot also used historical references. For example, ‘Battle of Mylae’ in line 70, was an allusion to the World War I that took place in 1914 to 1918. (Chinitz, p.2; Eliot[a]) Since this war was fought due to financial gain, Eliot referred to human’s stupidity and greed and combined it with ‘The Waste Land.’ A spiritual teacher Buddha preached the ‘Fire Sermon’ in Eliot’s poem. A reader has to be familiar with an allusion to appreciate it fully. Hamlet used in ‘Waste Land’ was a character in from the Shakespeare story. Allusions are a useful tool in that they give important context in a shorter span than if the writer decided to explain the whole thing from scratch. It also provides overshadowing to readers who understand it but not required to those that don’t. Allusions used in the ‘Waste Land’ poem, give a deeper meaning to the poem by referring to other people’s works that have similar themes. The poet used characters from novels of his time. For example, Madam Sosostris, one of Eliot’s characters is also a character in Aldous Huxley’s novel; Chrome Yellow. This novel was published in 1920, two years before the Waste Land (Chinitz, p.23). Understanding is enhanced when the reader can draw similarities between the two works. It encourages the reader to think more deeply. It also helps the writer blow his own trumpet that they know previous writers works. For example, the poet also used the quotes of his fellow poets to bring the aspect of allusion. For example, Eliot’s quotes from Baudelaire’s 19th-century French poet collection ‘Fleurs de mal’ in the Burial of the Deadline 60 and 76 (Eliot[a]). Eliot also used lines from famous play writers such as John Webster who wrote around the time of Shakespeare. Eliot referred to his play ‘The White Devil’ in line 75 of ‘The Burial of the Dead’ (Eliot[a]). William Shakespeare works have been referred several times by Eliot in his poem. Allusions can fall in either, Biblical, historical or topical category. In some literary works, the allusions might not have a definite purpose especially in cases where they only make sense to the writer referencing them. However, the allusions used in Eliot’s poem ‘Waste Land’ have a definite purpose. The allusions in this poem support the subject and the theme of rebirth and restoration that the poet is talking about without drawing the reader away from the main focus (Chinitz p.16). Allusions are also used to simplify complex ideas. The readers understand the complex ideas in the poem by comparing the poet’s emotions to the references provided by them. For example, biblical allusions in the ‘Waste Land’ appeal to readers with religious backgrounds. Modernist authors such as T.S. Eliot used allusions that were complex deliberately since they knew the readers would easily understand. An allusion can either be used as a straightforward tool to provide further meaning or as a complex sense when making an ironic comment on a certain thing by comparing it to something dissimilar. In this case, they reveal unspoken assumptions and biases between readers and authors (Chinitz p.29). In the same way, the readers understand that metaphors used in poetry are different from the literal interpretation; they can understand the allusions. The authors can evoke images and precious memories. In my own opinion, the authors use allusions to show to help the reader perform quick and subconscious deductions that involves them more and may give them a sense of cleverness.
Eliot’s use of allusion is crucial to his poem’s structure and theme of rebirth and restoration. References in ‘Waste Land’ attract lots of attention since they provide the poem’s internal structure. This structure heavily depends on them. The first allusion is derived from the poem’s title ‘The Wasteland.’ There are four wastelands in Eliot’s poem. The first Waste Land is the land that shows Oedipus complexity of sex; this is sex between mother and son that took place in the land of King Oedipus of Thebes (Al-Mahdi p.4). The second Wasteland is the Biblical one. It talks about the loss of spirituality which caused a lot of suffering to people due to the worshipping of idol gods. King Fisher’s land is the third Wasteland. The King lost the ability to bear children due to immorality. The last Waste Land is the modern world that signifies lust and misdeeds in the modern society. However, at the end of every waste land’s description, the poet ends it with a ray of hope. He gives the message of hope and restoration. He also gives the three “DA’S” which include, Datta, Daydhvam, and Damyata as solutions of the modern civilization from ruin and chaos. For instance, the kingdom that fell due to sexual immorality was restored, and the king redeemed of his actions (Eliot[a]). We also see Philomena being transformed into a bird of a golden song.
The first section, “Burial of the dead,” considers April to be the cruelest month as opposed to most literature that considers April to be the month of rebirth and regeneration. “Son of man” in line 20 represents Holy Christ. The loss of spirituality in the modern man is represented by the line “heap of broken images.” The dead tree in line 23 symbolizes the bareness that has resulted from modern civilization (Eliot[a]). The red rock represents the Christian church that is talked about in the new testament. “Hyacinth” I line 37 is one of the things that represent the hope of life and is a symbol of passionate love (Eliot[a]).The poet also used the quotes of his fellow poets to bring the aspect of allusion. For example, Eliot’s quotes from Baudelaire’s who was the 19th-century French poet collection ‘Fleurs de mal’ in the Burial of the Dead line 60 and 76. Eliot also used lines from famous play writers such as John Webster who wrote around the time of Shakespeare. Eliot referred to his play ‘The White Devil’ in line 75 of ‘The Burial of the Dead.’ William Shakespeare works have been referred several times by Eliot in his poem. (Brooks, Cleanth p.119). To be more specific Eliot alludes to the plays ‘The Tempest’, ‘The Hamlet and ‘Antony and Cleopatra.’ Eliot also used historical references. For example, ‘Battle of Mylae’ in line 70, was an allusion to the World War I that took place in 1914 to 1918. (Khan p.6; Eliot[a])
The section of “The Fire Sermon” is about sex and lust in the modern society. The poet in this section talks about the rape of the three daughters of River Thames. The title “The Fire Sermon” is allusive and originates from the Buddha Sermon. Lines 177 and 178 that talks about the pollution of the river symbolize spiritual degeneration of the modern world. In these lines, he was referring to Edmund Spenser’s ‘Prothalamion’ to be more specific. He aimed to show how Thames today, is a lot nicer than in 1600. “Teresia” is another illusion got from Sophocles’ Oedipus that says the sailor was brought home from the sea as a form of restoration. Line 292 “Trams and Dusty trees” is a symbol of the progress of materialistic culture in London. Lines 307 and 309 are allusions derived from St Augustine’s confession (Eliot[a]). He prayed to God to be saved from the fire of lust. The poet gives us hope that the sin of sex and lust can be evaded if we all prayed to God. Line 308 that mentions “burning” several times is an allusion from Lord Buddha’s Fire Sermon where he says the world is burning in the fire of hatred and sin (Eliot[a]). However, Fire, in this case, can be viewed as restoration. “Elizabeth and Leicester” from line 279, is an allusion to Queen Elizabeth and Leicester sailing upon the river Thames in the past time. In line 308, the speaker starts screaming burning several times and begs the Lord to let him die (Eliot[a]). However, the fire is also used to represent redemption and purification; this is shown in the line that says Dante hid in the fire that refines him. (Khan p.3); this gives us hope that despite the catastrophes we are going through there is hope.
In “The Game of Chess” subsection is about the problems of a married wife in lower class families. The title itself is an allusion from Middleton’s play “Women Beware Women.” Line 138 “Pressing lidless eyes and waiting for a knock upon the door” this is an allusion taken from the Middleton’s play “Women Beware Women,” in this play a game of chess is played with mother-in-law to diverge her attention to enable a lustful Duke to seduce her daughter-in-law (Eliot[a]; Khan p.8). “The Chair she sat in” is an allusion from Shakespeare play Antony and Cleopatra. “The Change of Philomel” is an allusion from Ovid’s story in his book metamorphoses. It says that Philomel was transformed by the gods into a nightingale after facing several tragic events in his life. In this way, readers understand the author’s idea of restoration and that people can be transformed for the better. The last line in the “Game of Chess,” that bids ladies a goodnight by repeating the words many times is obtained from Ophelia’s farewell in Shakespeare’s play the “Hamlet” this line symbolizes that all is not lost since new dawn will arise. In line 103 the word “jug” is repeated twice (Eliot[a]); this is a French word that symbolizes sex acts. “Those Pearls that were his eyes” from line 125 is an allusion got from Shakespeare’s play “The Tempest.” The rat is used to show pestilence, and the whole idea of it creeping through the vegetation shows how the war in infiltrating in the world and the dragging aspect shows the ideal and aftermath of the war. Lines 372 and 375 are also references to the war. (Eliot[a]) The poet says that cracks and reforms burst in the violent air, falling towers, Jerusalem, Athens, Vienna, and London. These were references to cities that at one time they were under siege and were much affected by the war. Vienna and London are important to note because they were directly affected by the first world war. In many sections of his poem, Eliot is making a commentary on the World War and its aftermath by use of references that the readers can relate.
The poet, in the section “Death by Water” which is also the smallest section of the poem, wants to reveal to us that despite the fact that we are physically alive, we are dead bodies and spiritually dead. Water has become the source of death for the waste landers. However, it can be a symbol of rebirth, life, and purification. “Phlebas” from line 312 in the poem, is a symbol of the 20th-century modern man while “Phoenician” in the same line represents the modern London city. The line “He passed the stages of his youth” is an allusion to Nice Osiris who gets old while he rises and falls and later reborn (Khan p.5).
From the last section of Eliot’s poem, “What Thunder Said” is about the deliverance of the modern man. This title symbolizes hope, rebirth, and restoration. “thunder of spring” is an allusion rebirth of Holy Christ. Line 328 says that whoever was living is now dead is an allusion of Fructification of Christ. “I have heard the key” of line 411, is an allusion Dante’s Inferno story (Eliot[a]). The key in this line symbolizes that one has to release himself from his ego. “Revive the moment” is an allusion from Coriolanus which is Shakespeare’s play. “Poi s’ascose nel Foco che gli affina” is an allusion borrowed from Dante’s Purgatory, this line means; please remember my pain. The three “D’s”; Datta, Dayadhvam, and Damyata are words from Indian mythology. The poet used them as an allusion. Dayadhvam, as used in the poem, means sympathize, while Datta means to give, and Damyata means to control (Davidson p.18). The poet strives to say that restoration can be achieved by acting upon these three doctrines, i.e., to give, to sympathies and to control. Eliot uses allusions to connect the present and the past to bring up some didactic purpose from the past events. Allusions show us that there is hope for restoration and rebirth for those who stick to the three doctrines (Khan p.2). The poet of “Waste Land” has quoted more than thirty writers mostly to symbolize degeneration, lack of spirituality and rebirth. The thunder imagery appears in the almost final sections as a promise that rain will come soon. Thunder can also as a source of destruction. The poet intends to show us that the society can either get better or worse.
Myths used by T. S. Eliot in the ‘wasteland.’
Other than the metaphor, imagery, and allusion, myths have proved to be more useful tools in poetry. Using the myths, the poet can achieve more expansion of meaning by saying so little. They are concerned with cultural practices and is also connected to the modern values. Past, present, and future are covered so quickly by the use of myths. A set of meanings can be rapidly achieved, that way the pressing reality of a man’s life can is emphasized. Myth can be defined as a complex of stories that have facts while others have a fantasy. Eliot’s poem was published in 1922 almost same time with the publication of James Joyce’s “Ulysses.” (Coupe p.12) Eliot, in his critical analyses of this novel, applauded the new technique called the mythical method. It was the only way of showing order amidst the modern chaos. The mythical wasteland represents the spiritual bareness in the modern world. However, the poet has expanded its scope by combining it with the barren land of Christian Bible and the classical Wasteland of King Oedipus (Al-Mahdi p.7). “Teresia” is the symbol of the traditional association. The blind prophet of Thebes who is introduced as the protagonist of the poem represents the human consciousness by merging the present with the past in his vision. It is designated as backward and forwards series flashes as those in movies. Eliot’s poem is the best illustration to show the use of mythical methods which helps us surpass time and space by moving in time and space; this helps us cover immense human consciousness to realize the intensity of pain and hope of restoration (Coupe p.16). It helps us think about the past and the present and that the spiritual barrenness and death have always been there despite the time in history. The epitome of understanding the mythical tool in poetry is parallelism and contrasts of the past and the present. Myths in Eliot’s poem, helps us understand that spiritual sterility in all ages, is as a result of God’s punishment. There is a message of hope, restoration, and deliverance from the voice of Prajapati speaking in thunder (Al-Mahdi p.9). A human discovered the remedy of giving, sympathizing and maintaining control in the past, and therefore these remedies can be used in the present and future to restore the wasteland.
The first myth used in the “Waste Land” poem is the vegetation myth. When Eliot was writing his poem, he was studying “Golden Bough” and “From Ritual to Romance.” The two books made him think that there was a definite process of ‘Death-Rebirth-Death’ pattern. The insight gained from the books is the reason why the spring is connected to rebirth while winter is linked to death (Coupe p.17). During winter, the lands lose their fertility and regain it during spring after the rains fall. This process was proven when some vegetation ceremonies and rituals were performed. In Egypt, the god of vegetation was buried in the earth when the corn grains stuck. This vegetation god was known as Osiris. The seeds sprouted after the death of the vegetation god. Sprouting of the grains symbolizes the rebirth of the god. As a result of sexual pervasion, and spiritual end, there is hope of spiritual regeneration (Al-Mahdi p.8). This recurrent process has been taken over by the Christian myth of the birth of Jesus Christ, how he suffered, died and resurrected to give hope and restoration. Some phrases such as “dead land,” “dull roots,” “forget snow” and “dried tubers” suggest similar things. They suggest barrenness of the earth and hope of life (Coupe p.19). The seasons as used in the wasteland represents birth-rebirth-birth recurrent process. The spring characterizes birth; the rain symbolizes spiritual fertility, the winter represents death while the drought represents the mental end. Water symbolizes both destruction and restoration; the same can be said of the fire. The rock without grass represents desolation (Khan p.4). Tarot cards, which is the old way of fortune telling, is used in Egypt to know the fall and rise of River Nile. The source of life and fertility can be told using the cards. However, the tarot cards are assumed to be dull and prohibited forecasting. Just like Osiris, Atis and Adonis were also vegetation gods. They were known both in Egypt and other countries. In some rituals, the corn-god was buried in the earth while in others he is disappeared in a river. From another perspective, the coming of effigy signed up the aspect of the rebirth of the vegetation-god. His revival led to the start of sowing of crops and was celebrated by singing, dancing, and merrymaking. The Death by Water section signifies the image of the ceremony (Khan p.4).
The second myth is the myth of The Fisher King; this is one of the myths that is used to convey different ideas. Fisher King was a prince that ruled a country visited by Paristal the Quester and other adventurers during their adventure travels. Fisher King’s land was one of the regions that worship of the Grail had ceased to take place. However, the Temple known as Chapel Perilous stood there broken and dilapidated (Al-Mahdi p.7). It existed as a mournful memorial like it once was. At the time, the King had become a total mess while the lost Grail was hiding in the chapel. The king had also lost his ability to bear children. The King’s misfortunes were due to the sins committed by his soldiers. The soldiers had raped a group of nuns attached to the Grail Chapel. Fisher King’s land also became barren and home of famine. The King, however, had hope that one day a Knight would come to their rescue, the knight would march to the Chapel Perilous and solve riddles (Al-Mahdi p.7). In doing so, the knight would purge the land’s sins and renew it its energy and health. Everyone hoped that the rain would give life to the ground and the thirsty kingdom for it to enjoy its earlier fertility. The myth of The Fisher King also connected the spiritual sterility with the contemporary decay. The sick king represents the ill humanity, and the sickness is as a result of the sexual perversion of the king. People in the wasteland have denied sex in its primary purpose of giving life (Al-Mahdi p.7). The sexual travesty and the fact that sex has been degraded to mere animal copulation has led to spiritual death; this, however, is not the end since penance and self-discipline can recover spirituality.
Tiresias myth is the next myth. According to Eliot, Tiresias is a central figure throughout his poem. The story of Tiresias is connected to the story of King Oedipus. In this analysis, we shall see how Tiresias is combined with waste and how it is a myth. The use of Tiresias as a myth is first, to complicate the mythical structure and secondly, to universalize. The poet says that Oedipus killed his father and married his mother; this led to him being cursed by the gods in the form of a virulent plague (Khan p.3). Everyone in his land including the royals and the commoners regarded the epidemic as a punishment for some hidden crime. Tiresias was a blind prophet who was summoned by the king to explain to him the reason of the plague. The prophet unveiled the truth that the King himself was the plague spot. The King is, therefore, slowly but irresistibly drawn to the horrible fact. The King was left with nothing other than self-mutilation, expiation, self-exile and prolonged penance. The result of this according to the poet, is spiritual illumination and spiritual calm; this is the evidence that all is not lost, that we can ask for forgiveness and we shall be restored. Tiresias is a blind prophet who is represented as a bi-sexual in this poem and has a gift of prophecy and immortality (Al-Mahdi p.8). These are two stories that are similar to Tiresias. The first is about the wise urban Theban Soothsayer, who in his youth saw the goddess Athena naked in a pond and the muse struck him blind. However, his mother was a friend of him, so the blindness was bestowed back. In the second story, Tiresias saw two snakes copulating, and the snakes in their wrath transformed him into a woman. When he was interrogated by love and Juno, about who was passionate about the man and woman in him, he said that the woman was more passionate. Juno was furious which caused him to strike him blind. Prophecy and immortality were bestowed to him as gifts by Zeus and Love to compensate him. Tiresias is both in the present and the past and in Waste Land is connected to King Fisher and Oedipus myths (Al-Mahdi p.7). He as seen and suffered all. His bi-sexuality has given him the ability to live life with a fuller experience as both man and woman while his prophetic vision has compensated his physical blindness. Tiresias is therefore said to be a symbol of human consciousness. He gives us hope that despite all the sufferings, there is restoration and transformation.
The legend of the Holy grail is associated with the King Arthur and his knights at the roundtable. It is also associated with the cup used by Jesus Christ during his last supper with his disciples, and in that cup, the blood was gathered after his crucifixion. The myth of this cup renders it medicinal and miraculous. Therefore it became the symbol of purity and a representation of devotion to worship. The original Grail was mysteriously disappeared, and many of Ling Arthurs Knights staked their lives as they searched for it. It is believed that the Grail is sometimes seen floating in the sky, but only seen by the knights that lived a pure life; this reveals to us that restoration is just for those who live a chaste life. Tennisson used the theme as the theme final of his ‘idylls of the king; and made Sir Galaad the immaculate Knight. The Grail was initially related to the fertility myth where the cup and the lance represented the male and the female organs but later on, changed to represent Christ (Al-Mahdi p.7). Eliot uses symbolism in his poem to drive the theme of spirituality. He uses stories in the bible such as the sacred cup of Jesus and the last supper. When Christ ‘died’ brought back humanity and gave way to a new life to begin. Later in the poem, Fire is used as a tool of redemption and purification. Eliot shows this when he says Dante hid in the fire which refines him. The fact that fire can be ‘refining’ gives us hope that all cultural problems we have suffered might bring us hope later on (Al-Mahdi p.9). The poet says that those with a pure heart will only attain the Grail. The Grail is a unique symbol used by the poet to show that the wasted land is trying to revive itself, but its ruler keeps on failing it (Coupe p.35).
The myth of Philomena qualifies to be the myth that carries the poem’s most important themes (Highet p.22). The tale explains how her sister’s husband, Tereus raped Philomena. Tereus ensured that Philomena’s sister Procne never talked about the incident by severing her tongue (Highet p.61). Philomena and her sister Procne revenged on Tereus by serving him with his slain son, Itys. All the three were turned into birds by the gods after they realized that Tereus plan to slain the two sisters. This story is recurrent in Wasteland and acts as an anchor of the recurring idea of regeneration and procreation (Highet p.22). Eliot’s poem relates to April that is used at the beginning of the verse. April is taken to be the month of rebirths and births. Eliot, however, says it is the cruellest month. Philomena’s myth revolves around the act of creation. In this story, if Tereus had not Raped Philomena, the rest of the story could not have taken place. Similarly, in the “Waste Land” the land has lost its ability to create new things. Stagnation has destroyed the ability of the world to grow new things and give rise to new innovative ideas. Re-creation is a vital process of human nature. Eliot’s world in the poem stopped recreating. It is evident in the poem after the primary purpose of sex was no longer a purpose. Sex was no longer used for procreation but for pleasure. Couples in the poem were not interested in bringing up an offspring. In line 159 the poet admits that pills were used to abort unwanted pregnancies (Eliot[a]). Sex is seen to be empty of love and meaning and takes on a sinful and lustful characteristic. The poem is set in a land that once produced gardens, but now the land is dry. Just like Tereus, the land is not motivated to produce. The poet does not stop at the stagnation process. He brings up the idea that the Waste Land could change. In lines 393 and 394’ “a damp gust/bringing rain” is a way of the poem to hint change (Eliot[a]). Throughout his poem, Eliot acknowledged that new things could be achieved from death and that new civilizations are built from old civilizations. The potential of the dead land is evident in line “if there were only water in rocks.” Eliot uses the word “change” in line100. From the story, Philomena, Procne, and Tereus were turned into birds; this is a show of how the gods will destroy the humanity (Martin p.20). Out of rape, murder, and cannibalism of the situation, birds were created. The gods in the myth are responsible for completing the metamorphosis. This land has the potential of restoration despite its old and pointless existence. Eliot offers teachings of Buddha as a form of advice to the people in Wasteland does not have to suffer entirely for its misdeeds. Instead, it can be regenerated and renewed. Like Philomena, Eliot has sustained a significant violation in his land; like Procne, he cannot communicate his loss. Philomena being transformed into a bird of a golden song, contribute to the theme of rebirth and regeneration (Martin p.20). The poem makes a promise of forgiveness and redemption to those who repent their evil actions. The rain of divine grace symbolizes the hope to be held out to those who will repent (Al-Mahdi p.9). The poet believes that the spiritual wound we are suffering from can still be dressed to be better. The solution can only be achieved by mental and emotional enlightenment and making peace with our demons. Just like the gods in the story, Eliot’s land can change its most self-destructive parts.
Eliot in his poem has mentioned three Waste Lands; the Biblical Wasteland, the Wasteland of Kingfisher and the Wasteland of King Oedipus of Thebes. The Biblical Wasteland was mentioned in the book of Ecclesiastes and Ezekiel in the Old Testament. Ezekiel as a prophet warns his people to avoid the sin of idolatry. The title of the first section “The Burial of the Dead” has an important mythological meaning. The poet’s note was taken from the Anglican burial service. The line ‘Son of man’ refers to the Christ as described by Ezekiel. The poetry seems to us as a dramatic monologue as we see the similarities between the “The Waste Land” and “Ezekiel.” The sin had rendered the land a Waste and restoration would only come when they start worshipping God. “The handful dust,” “The dry grass,” “the cricket and the rack” are all derived from the biblical symbolism of decay and destruction. The three Wastelands are full of chaos and anarchy that is found in contemporary Europe. Eliot used the myths to link up the present, past and universalized the themes. He has revealed the image of sterility of modern world where sin especially that of sexual perversion has resulted in spiritual desolation and decay. When humanity is ready to pay the price in the form of suffering and penance, the life-giving rain will come; in other words, spiritual regeneration will be achieved. The poet was successful to depersonalize his emotions by use of medieval and pagan myths and therefore, impacted the ‘Waste Land’ to be a masterpiece of high art.
In conclusion, the Waste Land is a success story of the 20th century poetic art. In his poem, Eliot tried his level best to explain his mythical structure and background. He used myths such as Grail Legend which is connected to Christ; the myth of the Fisher King and the desolate land, the myth of Tiresias which is linked to King Oedipus of Thebes, and the vegetation myth. Eliot related the myths to a series of human characters hence conveying to his readers the real image of the chaos intertwining modern Europe. In essence, the myths show the link between past and present. Through the myths, Eliot explains the series of ‘birth-death-rebirth’ of human beings. Therefore, the myths contribute to the theme of rebirth and redemption
CHAPTER 4: THE CITY CENTRE AS A CENTRE FOR HOPE AMIDST A FRAGMENTED WORLD
Immediately after World War I, people expected rebirth and a fresh start, but this was not the case. The first line of the first section of Eliot’s poem refers to April as the cruelest month and yet the war period was over. As the heading of the section (“The Burial of the Dead”) signifies, the period after the war was a grieving period after people lost their loved ones. This is the time people needed to find a source of hope to cope up with the hard situations. The economy was brought down to the ground during the war. People were jobless. And due to reduced spirituality, the people were hopeless, and their sense of morality reduced significantly. Since the city was the center of hope, it seems Eliot predicted that masses would move in to seek the hope. Consequently, the city will be overpopulated and full of immorality. Eliot predicted that modern urban decay would break out in the cities as the Unreal City symbolically represents it. This paper aims to demonstrate how the contemporary city serves as the center of hope amidst a fragmented world.
The Setting of ‘The Waste Land’
The setting of ‘The Waste Land’ is in London. London is the city that Eliot metaphorically uses in his poem. The reason why analysts came to this conclusion is that Eliot mentions places that are in London today. Some of the sites mentioned include the London Bridge, Magnus Martyr, and the Tower of London among several other locations. This section will give brief information about the city and relate the information to how it highlights the city center as a center for hope.
According to Munro, London grew up extraordinarily between 1500 and 1600 (Munro 1). The city’s increased population caused a social crisis about the symbolic meaning of the city (Munro 1). Others viewed the overpopulation as just a social presence of individuals with similar sociopolitical beliefs whereas others related the crowdedness to a crisis. Munro noted that it is after the World War I that London’s population assumed a national significance. Before the war, population surge to the city was noticed. There was increased royal residence in the city and concentration of mercantile wealth that triggered massive immigration to the city during the thirteenth century. Due to urban consolidation and population growth, London’s growth accelerated significantly. The number of people increased from approximately 100,000 to 200,000 between 1580 and 1600 (Munro 3). It can be argued that Eliot made this observation of significant population growth in London in centuries before the First World War. But due to increased sensitivity to morality, Eliot did not notice anything wrong with the population growth. He must have been distraught when he discovered that people’s sense of morality has reduced due to the fragmented world after the war and that population was increasing in urban centers such as London. Crowdedness with a reduced sense of morality can lead to a social crisis.
Since ‘The Waste Land’ was published in 1922, a period after the World War I had ended, it is arguable that Eliot was inspired to write the poem for symbolic representation of modern London. He wanted to portray the population patterns and behavior of modern London. Through the population patterns and behavior, one can tell how the city center is a center of hope in a fragmented world after the First World War.
In 1580, Elizabeth issued a warning against new building and division of houses in London; this indicates that even before the World War I, the government and the people were still concerned with the crisis that might erupt following overpopulation. Elizabeth’s 1580 proclamation is thought to be the first attempt to control population growth in London (Munro 16). Thus, it is evident that even the “traditional” London was concerned with overcrowding. However, the reasons why people moved to the city before the occurrence of the World War I cannot adequately address why the city center was a center of hope. But reasons such as to seek economic opportunities are apparent. People moved to London before the world war to find opportunities, and it is absolute that there are people who could migrate to the city to seek economic opportunities after the war. Thus, on the surface, it can be argued that due to improved economic opportunities in the City, people moved here to repair their lives after an economic depression during the period of war.
So, the economic reasons for the migration of people to the city cannot adequately explain why the city center was a source of hope. Many other reasons can be identified after the war. However, this requires a keen look at the population patterns and human behavior in early modern London.
In the poem, Eliot refers to London as the “Unreal City.” The Unreal City is first mentioned in line 60 of the poem. In line 62, Eliot states, “A crowd flowed over London Bridge, so many,” which indicates that so many people inhabit the city. As Nasi maintains, besides the image of dead people inhabiting a city that is unreal, the use of “many” in line 62 is also an essential element (518). Eliot emphasized the word “many” when he also used it in line 63. Nonetheless, the poet states death in line 63: “I had not thought death had undone so many.” This suggests that as much as many people had moved to London or the Unreal City, so many others were dying. Eliot goes on and states that there are utter solitude and isolation in the gigantic crowd in the Unreal City which sounds ironic because this is expected in a small village where human contact is a matter of choice. Eliot as a modernist is trying to show the dysfunctionality and illogicality of human interaction in a modern society.
The theme of dehumanization in the modern society is relevant even today. Today, when walking in the streets of London, women avoid eyes as they pass on the sidewalks and men staring blankly and looking back at their newspapers quickly. There is a monotonous cycle of living in the city center: no one has time or energy for interaction; this is especially evident among the working class. There are two forms of dehumanization visible in the modern life: the death of human interactions and spiritual death. The end of human interactions in the city center has already been discussed above. A reduced sense of morality marks the spiritual death, and it refers to the separation of man from God. Detachment from God is anticipatable because if people in urban centers cannot connect to each other, how can they connect to God? Eliot talks about two churches in “The Waste Land” namely St. Mary Woolnoth and Magnus Martyr. Standing at the northern end of London Bridge, St. Mary Woolnoth has become a symbol of oppression for the working-class people because of its 9 o’clock bell. 9 o’clock is the official time to start work. The clock is symbolic since it shows that the life at the city center has separated the church from divinity because of strict deadlines and schedules. Thus, this disconnection of man from God in the modern life rules out the possibility of the city center as a source of spiritual hope.
Therefore, it is crucial to conceptualize “hope” first to identify how the city center is a source of hope. The word “hope” comes with a spiritual sense in it. It is a word that is frequently mentioned in religion. Since the complexity of modern life has made it difficult for people living in the city center to connect to God, then the “hope” in the city center does not relate to religion. Hope can be defined as a feeling of expectation and desire for a particular thing to happen. So, what is this specific thing people dwelling in the city center expect and desire to happen? Identifying it will be the starting point to uncovering how the city center is a source of hope.
Besides taking a toll on the human spirit, the First World War also devastated the economy. The war stagnated and declined the economy especially in the European countries giving the United States a chance to catch up and bridge the gap. Many people were need of jobs to boost their standards of living. Hence such people moved to urban areas in search of employment; this is one side of the concept that can explain why the city center is a source of hope. Support for the above explanation is that given by the observation of the daily life of people living in the Unreal City after the war ended. Eliot has portrayed the city life as very monotonous. Eliot says, “The typist home at teatime, clears her breakfast, lights
Her stove, and lays out food in tins” (Eliot lines222-3). The living cycle is same all year round. Wake up. Take breakfast. Go to work. Return home and sleep. Repeat the cycle. Indeed, this is very monotonous but inevitable because people must work to survive. It is also arguable that this city life is undesirable to many. But due to tough economic times, people must be ready to work.
Thus, it is evident that people living in the city center hope for financial freedom. People’s desire to boost their standards of living after economic stagnation and declination post-war relates to the daily life of people living in the city. This desire is, therefore, their motive to undergo the hustle and bustle of city life.
People had started moving to London as earlier as the late 1500s causing a population crisis. Elizabeth’s proclamation that there should be no house division in London and its environs to restore the city by controlling overcrowding is evidence to this (Munro 1). The increased immigration to the city led to its significant growth in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It became the center of the country’s economy. After the war, many people moved to the city to seek economic opportunities, and that is why it is referred to as a source of hope. People viewed London as an excellent place to earn a living.
However, the manner in which Eliot portrays city life is ironic. Many regard it as a source of hope, but Eliot describes city life as very monotonous and pathetic because of the death of human spirit and human interaction. Eliot’s explanation shows the complicatedness of modern life.
“Unreal City” as a Symbol
The Unreal City is mentioned about thrice in the poem. Eliot first mentioned it in line 60 where he describes it as “under brown fog.” He also said in line 62 that “crowd flowed over London Bridge” to show the crowdedness of the city (Eliot lines60-62). In this way, Eliot wants to demonstrate that city life is malicious, overcrowded, and dirty. When he described the Unreal City in the poem, he implied it to be London because some of the places mentioned are in London today. The most significant mention, however, is the London Bridge. Being a historical monument, the London Bridge was designed to be wide to accommodate the large crowds that were moving into the city. Eliot notes that about 200, 000 people migrated to the city on a daily basis in the 1850s (591). Eliot also talks about St. Mary Woolnoth and Magnus Martyr, some of the historic churches in modern London. The poet also mentions several other places that belong to London today.
Unreal City signifies the complexities of the modern life. In line 65, Eliot says, “And each man fixed his eyes before his feet” to demonstrate extraordinary isolation of the people living in the city center. This isolation is even worse among the working class. As mentioned earlier in this paper, Eliot portrays the city life as monotonous as the living cycle is always the same. People of Unreal City have fixed schedules and deadlines that make them go through the same living cycle of going to work, return home, and repeat the process. This monotony is one of the unresolved complexities of modern life. The prevailing school of thought is that monotony occurs because people get detached from each other as they are consumed by work hence leading to the death of human interaction. With reduced human interaction, other complications set in such as increased mental health problems and so on. Thus, as much as people move to Unreal City to seek for economic opportunities in their pursuit of financial freedom, the life here is not enjoyable anymore because it is not the cleanest of places.
Eliot also warns that like any other city, London will come to fall. He refers to great antique cities such as Athens that fell. Even though the poet did not mention the causes of the fall of the ancient cities, he projected that the overpopulation crisis in Unreal City or London would make it fall. He wants to sound a warning that people should not celebrate the booming London, especially during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Another exciting thing that Eliot does in the poem is using the Unreal City to compare modern life to living in hell. Living in the center of Unreal City is like living in hell. The speaker in line 60-65 remembers seeing a crowd of people flowing to London through the London Bridge. They argue that Eliot is talking about the circles of hell in Dante’s Inferno. In fact, these lines are just an allusion to Dante’s Inferno. In line 65, the speaker remembers the people sighing and staring the ground that is just in front of their feet. Eliot is alluding Dante’s Inferno here to mean that people are extremely unsatisfied with their lives. By alluding Dante’s Inferno, Eliot tries to like the modern experience with living in hell, where all dead people are. The picture Eliot tries to paint here is that people are suffering in Unreal City, but they cannot complain because it is their source of hope. It is also arguable that Eliot portrays man as very desperate for good life.
One controversial thing about Eliot is why he is referring to London as an “unreal” city. The word “unreal” means illusory or imaginary. The use of ‘unreal’ therefore means that London is just an imagined city. Does an imagined city exist? It is true that London exists today, but it is a “wasteland.” Eliot talks of “cracks and reforms and bursts in the violet air” (line 376) to show a fatalistic attitude toward London due to its population crisis. This line shows a vision of the destruction of the city, and that is why the poet also says that it will fall like other great cities of the past such as Jerusalem and Athens. Thus, regardless of its successes, the modern city will come to fall, and that is why Eliot decides to give the “unreal” city a disturbing definition.
The World Away from the City Center
The setting of “The Waste Land” is one of the most provocative in modern literature. One may say that the overall context of this poem is Unreal City or London, but the author keeps on jumping from one place to another. The author also sets the themes of the poem in areas away from the city center. The image of this places portrays the nature of modern life. These places are very fragmented. A keener look at the poem and one can notice that the setting is not physical. Eliot uses a dry, infertile, and appalling mental and spiritual landscape. Understanding this poem requires one to figure out that the setting is a physical place inside one’s head.
The implied image of the places away from the city center can be traced in “What the Thunder Said,” where Eliot talks about the “arid plain” (425). The places are plain and rocky, and nothing can grow here. Just like the city center, the places are also filled with litter. The litter includes cigarette butts and sandwich papers as described in lines 175-180 of the poem. Additionally, Eliot also talks about the fragmented culture composed of the Greek, Italian, and Roman among others. Tiresias, the blind prophet was set in a place away from the city center. He walks in a barren desert and picks various fragments of broken traditional culture. The fragmented culture in these places is due to the First World War that the poet keeps on indirectly referring to in the poem. The described places are also fragmented because they were used as battlefields during the World War I which destroyed almost everything in some parts of Europe. It is a “wasteland” filled with dirt. Since there seemed to be economic opportunities in London, people moved there massively post-war to find hope.
It is evident that the places that were used as battlefields during the war were squalid and uninhabitable. The unlivable condition of such sites is probably the reason masses moved to Unreal City which led to the rapid growth of London. The author describes both the city center and the areas away from it as filthy and overcrowded, an indication that modernists are a ruined generation. They have limited choices for finding hope because of both the city center and places away from it profoundly negatively affect several aspects of human life. As seen earlier, the nature of urban life in the modern world has killed human interaction, and as much as masses are moving in, several others are dying. In quintessence, the city’s “influx” is from individuals from sandy and rocky places where nothing can grow; this indicates hopelessness since the city life leads to the death of people. Some argue that the crowd described at the London Bridge is a combination of the spirits of the dead and the alive people who are unsatisfied with life. By comparing other places to the city life, Eliot demonstrates that modern life is dehumanizing.
Overall, although the city center is fragmented due to filthiness and crowdedness, the places away from it are worse. At least people can find jobs in the city. The official work time is 9 o’clock as shown in the poem and earlier in this paper. The majority in the city is the working class earning money and sustaining their livelihood; this indicates that at least something can “grow” at the city center. On the other hand, the places away from the city center are barren and sandy, and nothing can grow there. Therefore, it is evident why the city center is a source of hope for the people regardless of the fact that it robs people of their humanity.
Techniques Used to Show a Fragmented World
Eliot portrays a fragmented world in the poem by using various poetic techniques. However, before describing these techniques, it is imperative to understand the meaning of a fragmented world. Fragmentation means lack of unification. Though, Eliot seems to portray a fragmented world beyond the one that lacks unification. The modern world is full of personal disassociation and utter solitude and isolation which tells that people are not unified. Decreased human interaction is highly prevalent in urban centers and areas away from urban centers are dry and sandy, and nothing can grow here meaning they are uninhabitable. There is also cultural fragmentation. The voice of the Western culture has been broken down into several small voices each occupying its world, and there is no sign of unification any soon.
Eliot uses distinct poetic styles to represent a fragmented world. The main styles used include symbolic connections of a fragmented world and a mythological method of allusions. Each technique will be elaborated later. Some of these techniques were used for the first time in poetry marking the beginning of modernism. While using these styles, Eliot did not want the reader to understand the poem directly. He tried to challenge the reader, which is also another portrayal of the nature of the modern world. The modern world will always test the existence of human beings. The poem indicates that people will run to the city from dry and rocky areas, but the life in the city as a last resort is also full of challenges. So, there are challenges everywhere in the modern world; it is now survival for the fittest. This technique of challenging the reader by avoiding being straightforward to the point has never been used in traditional poetry. Eliot was the first to use it in this poem. This technique is called subject correlative. According to Jewett, subject correlative refers to “…a set of objects, a chain of events which shall be the formula for…particular emotion; such that when external facts are given, the emotion is directly evoked” (Jewett 96). It can be very intimidating when interpreting the poem for the first time because Eliot does not come right out and dictate to the reader on how to feel and think. It is the job of the reader to use the images, situations, and characters to interpret the meaning of the poem. Eliot, therefore, used references to classical myths and symbols or images to evoke the emotion he wanted.
The symbolic connections of a fragmented world are all over in the poem. First, Eliot allegorically fragments his poem into five separate sections. It is hard to tell the plot of the poem from the beginning to the end. The lack of flow between the different parts of the poem was meant to represent the nature of modern life. Perhaps the disorganization of the sections signifies that everyday life has become incredibly complex beyond human capacity to understand it fully. The disorganized plot of the poem is, therefore, a typical symbol of the complexities of modern life. In other words, the poet wanted to reflect the extent of worldly fragmentation.
Eliot also makes use of symbols as a powerful technique to portray a fragmented world. Due to the complexity of the poem, the symbols used have been subject to different interpretations and misinterpretations. However, if the reviewer of the poetry develops the attitude of a fragmented modern world as the central theme of the poem, he or she would accurately interpret the symbols. The first symbol used is water that is used to represent death instead of life. The drowned Phoenician sailor dies because of too much water (47). The wasteland lacks water as it is dry and rocky. He says, “there is no water but only rock” (331) to mean that water is a symbol of fertility that the wasteland no longer has. The speaker also talks of “limp leaves/wait for rain” (395) to portray how the modern man is longing for spiritual life. The water imagery alone has painted a clear picture of the fragmented world. The poet also uses fire as a symbol of the hellish experience of the modern life. The speaker screams, “Burning burning burning…” (308), and pleads with the Lord to let him die instead of the suffering. The speaker wants to be pulled out of the worldly suffering in the modern world. It is full of filthy desires such as sex and material possessions. He also talks about zombie crowds in lines 61-63. If truth be told, Eliot never used the word “zombie” in his poem, but since it seems he is alluding Dante’s Inferno, his description of modern people in their daily lives feels “zombie-ish.”; this shows how the modern people are spiritually poor. This spiritual poverty is what adds to the modern world’s fragmentation. Another significant symbol that has been used to paint a picture of a fragmented world is keys and prisons. The speaker says, “We think of the key, each in his prison” (414) to refer to people’s either willing or unwilling self-imprisonment. People are self-imprisoned to their self-interest and ego. People tend to compensate the hole of their spiritual poverty and lack of compassion by taking advantage of others. One can observe fragmentation here because each person in the modern world never minds others’ interests. Overall, there are so many symbols that can describe a fragmented world in the poem. The few above were randomly picked from the poem.
Eliot alludes to traditional works to compare the modern world and the conventional world. He wants the reader to spot what the contemporary world has lost. People got disconnected with the mainstream society after World War I as evidenced by Eliot’s mood and tone that resembles that of people returning from war and experiencing self-alienating conflicts after witnessing the atrocities of the war. In lines 176-184, Elliot alludes Edmund Spenser’s “Prothalamion” to demonstrate how River Thames of 1600 was much better than that of 1922. The poet also showed interest in Jessie Weston’s “From Ritual to Romance” which is a mythology of fertility in antique times. He referred to Weston in line 425. He also alludes other big names such as Andrew Marvell (185), William Shakespeare (48), and Thomas Middleton (137) among several others. By alluding classical works, Eliot wants to demonstrate the extent the modern world has changed from the traditional world. Additionally, the techniques used in portraying a fragmented modern world insinuate that Eliot was comparing the conventional world with the early modern world just immediately after the First World War. He did not have a prospective view of the contemporary world, but most of his themes are evident in today’s world.
The City Center as a Symbol of Hope Amidst a Fragmented World
Set right after the First World War, “The Waste Land” is a depiction of the modern world. The contemporary world became a wasteland due to the consequences of the war. Millions of people were killed, and property worth millions was lost. The setting of Eliot’s poem is diverse ranging from the city center to remote areas far away from the city center. It is also evident in the verse that the extent of the worldly fragmentation differs from one place to another. The sites far away from the city center are uniquely and severely fragmented when compared to the fragmentation of the city. Eliot portrayed the fragmentation of these areas as a dry, sandy and rocky, and barren. Thus, the people cannot inhabit here because nothing can grow.
Both the city center and the places far away from it are fragmented in some way. Eliot portrays the city center and the areas far away from it as filthy. It is at least understandable that the city center is dirty due to overcrowding. Since the places far away from it represent barrenness and uninhabited, it is vague to portray them as dirty unless Eliot meant another form of filthiness. Perhaps the dirtiness of the places away from the city center is attributable to the egocentric nature of the modern people. They are imprisoned in self-interest and ego, and they care less about others. This detachment from the mainstream society can make the few people inhabiting these places to litter them callously because they do not care about each other. The lack of water in these places is also a depiction of fragmentation. Overall, the sites far away from the city center are utterly fragmented, and they are entirely unfavorable for human settlement. As mentioned earlier in this paper, these places served as battlefields. Everything was destroyed which is the reason the land is utterly unproductive. Thus, it is conclusive that these places are economically fragmented.
On the other hand, the city center is also fragmented but not as severe as the places away from it. Whereas the First World War had a profound economic impact on the sites away from the city center, it profoundly impacted the city center socially. Eliot associates a lot of evil with the city center. The war led to spiritual poverty and lack of compassion leading to a reduced sense of morality. Moral corruption, however, seems to have affected all the areas, but it must be more severe in the city center than places away from it; this was evidenced by the manner in which Eliot portrays St. Mary Woolnoth and St. Magnus Martyr. St. Mary Woolnoth is nearer the city center than St. Magnus Martyr. Located just a few miles to the northern side of London Bridge, St. Mary Woolnoth has a bell that rings every day at 9 o’clock to remind people of the work time. One can imagine how the working class would be annoyed and put their heads down cursing the bells at the “stroke of nine” (line 68). Cursing the church shows that the modern people, especially those dwelling at the city center have been separated from God. The church in the contemporary world is a landmark for prayer. On the other hand, Eliot casts more positive light on St. Magnus Martyr. It seems to be a more pleasurable place than St. Mary Woolnoth even though buildings of the twentieth century have surrounded it. The buildings have sprung up to accommodate the increasing population in the city, and now they are choking out the shining light that makes the walls of the church shine with magnificence. The reason why Eliot is portraying St. Magnus Martyr a more pleasurable place than St. Mary Woolnoth is because of its proximity to the city center. It is further away from the city hence it is less contaminated with the city’s evil that hypnotizes and deadens the masses. Thus, even if moral corruption is high in the city center, it at least has economic opportunities as evidenced by the working class dwelling here.
The economic consequences of the war seem more severe than its social implications. Even if the extraordinary isolation of the city dwellers muffles them, it seems that people are more comfortable in the city than they could be in places away from the city center. Eliot did not portray severe water shortage at the city center. Wherever there is water, there is life. In fact, the London Bridge has spanned the River Thames, the cleanest river that flows through a major city in the world today. Even so, River Thames was once highly polluted in the late nineteenth century and earlier twentieth centuries causing the death of several people from cholera. Nevertheless, the water of River Thames served as the source of life in the city center. Through mythical allusion, Eliot notes that River Thames of the 1600s was more beautiful than the Thames of 1922. The deterioration is probably due to the pollution of the river in the late 1800s and earlier 1900s. But since the river did not dry up, it is arguable that it was the polluted source of life for the city dwellers.
It is undeniable the modern people would probably forgo their life social aspects for financial freedom. As seen above, the places away from the city center are more fragmented than the city center itself. Thus, the city center is at least habitable. Besides, the hope of the people depended on the restoration of the places away from the city center. People want to recover the wealth they lost during the Great War. The only way they can recover it is to look for jobs at the city center to gain financial freedom. Many people moved to London to look for a living leading to overcrowding. Due to the reduced sense of morality and the increased focus of the people to accumulate wealth, city dwellers are isolated, which is the most prevalent form of fragmentation in this setting.
One thing to note before understanding why the city center is a symbol of hope is its level of fragmentation. Of course, it has economic opportunities, but Unreal City is also a symbol of modern urban decay. In fact, with enough water in places away from the city center, people would prefer to dwell here because, despite being filthy, human interaction is utterly a personal choice. Some circumstances such as tight schedules and deadlines make the city dwellers individualistic (self-centered and egocentric), restricting them from freely interacting with others. There is a lot of evil taking place in the city center than other areas as discussed earlier. The immorality tells s that the city center as a source of hope amidst a fragmented world is also mildly or moderately fragmented.
As a symbol of hope amidst a fragmented world, the city center is not forever or permanent. After portraying the city center as a symbol of hope, Eliot went ahead to depict that it is not permanent. In other words, he explains that the modern generation is transitory. Will they survive forever when their source of hope is impermanent?; this is one of the most critical questions a reader of this poem would ask. If the fall of great cities of the past (such as Alexandria and Jerusalem) is anything to go by, London will also fall with the people’s hope one day. Edgar Poe’s “The Masque of the Red Death” also predicted a similar situation. The red death in Poe’s short story is brutal – it sweeps away all forms of human existence. Indeed, if London falls, and it is the only symbol of hope, human existence will be swept away. But why did Eliot refer to London as “unreal city?” This interpretation has led to significant controversies in modern literature. From a unique angle, one would argue that “unreal city” symbolizes many other modern cities other than London. All these cities will fall, but fortunately, as the vast cities fell and new others emerged, London shall fall, and new cities will spring up and continue serving people as their source of hope.
Overall, the city center symbolizes hope because, unlike other places that are uninhabitable, people can live in it. It has economic opportunities unlike the sites far away from it. There is no water shortage in the city center. Water is always used to symbolize life in any piece of literature. However, in the poem, the speaker talks of a drowning sailor due to too much water. This shows that the modern world is purely fragmented, some areas have no water at all whereas others have too much water that kills. The drowning sailor probably represents the consequences of too much wealth (life) that one gets as a city dweller. It is also depicted that crowds move into the city, but few people move out to mean that the city is too crowded with spirits of the dead.
CHAPTER 5: THE WASTELAND AS A HERALD FOR OPTIMISM
Critical analysis of Eliot’s poem suggests that there is divergence concerning the tone all the way from the beginning to the end. At times, the tone is optimistic while in other verses the mood is pessimistic. Some critics have argued that the poem is concerned with “heroic attainment of salvation” while others argue it is about the desolate nature of the modern world. For instance, some critics have dictated that Eliot, through the poem, has compared life to be of the ‘purgatorial quality’ (Brooks, P, 77). Other reviews by different critics have dictated that the main theme of the poem is that that life is neither hellish nor heavenly. However, Cleanth Brooks in his 1939 essay “Critique of the myth” argued that Eliot’s poem was optimistic. It depicted current hellish experience while suggesting how redemption can be attained later. Before Brook, most of the critiques saw the poem as an expression of negativity and despair that was brought as an aftermath of the World War I. J.C. Squire refereed it as a “continuous state of complete depression.” Edmund backed this up by affirming that “nothing ever grows when the rain never falls”. Nonetheless, most critics today gravitate towards optimism when analyzing Eliot’s poem. According to these critics, the Waste Land signified the movement of ‘modernism-optimistic’ way of writing. It would, therefore, be wrong to say that the Waste Land poem is a reflection of the World War I aftermath and the diagnosis of the modern age’s misdeeds without mentioning any hope of renewal and salvation. This chapter thus analyzes how the poem serves as a herald for optimism.
The past and the present are adjoined to show that whatever is happening in the present occurred in the past as well. It is therefore not correct to name the poem “a sigh for the glories of the past” or as “diagnosis of the illness plaguing modern society.” Eliot did not praise the past at the expense of the present nor did he only describe the misfortunes of modern society. Instead, the poem talks about the tragedy at the heart of life in all ages including in the past, present, and future. All the past occurrences spoken about in the poem resemble present events; for instance, there were wars in the past similar to the recent World War. Thus, since all the past suffering resulted in regeneration, we are assured that the present suffering has an end.
In essence, the wasteland poem has a promise and prophesies of hope. It reveals that there is a possibility of regeneration. However, restoration will be attained through penance after suffering. From the last section of the poem ‘What the Thunder Said,’ the sound of thunder is heard which showed that the rain is there. Coming of the rain was a fulfillment of the promise that was made; this signifies that only after the man repents, just like King Oedipus and Fisher King did, then the land will be restored. Eliot. Eliot also brings together the wisdom of east and West in the final chapters of the poem to affirm that if we heed the voice of thunder, regeneration is possible.
Pessimism vs. Optimism
Examining the works of different scholars who analyzed The Waste Land by T. S. Eliot will provide insight regarding the central themes present in the poem. Most critics categorize the poem as melancholic since it focuses a lot on portraying the world as deteriorated hence giving readers the feeling of sorrow and despair. These scholars, both early and recent have had different concepts regarding the poem, and because of this, criticism took a life of its own as the critics consistently tried to give opinions of what the poem meant and whether it stood for optimism or pessimism. Many of the scholars have presented compelling evidence to support their analysis (Brooks, P, 77).
Among these scholars is Cleanth Brooks who was among the most influential critics of his time. Cleanth Brooks is known as the father of current criticism. He is known for his explications of Christian myths. He has a significant influence on how the readers of today view Eliot’s poem (Winchell p.165). Brooks expresses that indeed Eliot was exploring the theme of the immorality present in modern society. Brooks explains that what Eliot is trying to convey as the central message is that man has lost his ability to differentiate between good or evil (Brooks p.106). Based on this standpoint, the modern wasteland is viewed as a kingdom whose residents do not exist; instead, they are in a life-death situation. Brooks sees the tangible ‘Wasteland’ of the poem as a representative of today’s world where people have diverse culture and beliefs (Brooks p.106). Brooks perspective of reading of ‘The Waste Land’ has stood out since he published his analysis of the poem. Before Brooks critics, the book had not been understood completely (Winchell p.165). His analysis of the poem is so straightforward that any literature beginning student could understand. However, Brooks mentions that it is not enough to regard the poem as a statement of the immorality and despair present in the modern world. In Brooks’ words, focusing on despair and immorality is staying far too close to the surface of the very meaning of Eliot’s poem. Brooks, therefore, emphasized on a philosophical viewpoint to approach Eliot’s poem. He understood ‘The Waste Land’ as a devotion to the science of interpretation thus placing the poem at the heart of modern criticism. (Brooks p.137).
Lawrence Rainey was another influential critique of the Waste Land. Rainey’s analysis of the poem was published in one of his books in 1998. His critics are stated in the chapter “Price of Modernism.” (Thomas Stearns.20) He advocated on using the poem for its historical approach and not dwelling wholly on analyzing the text of the poem. He instead focused on the climatic conditions of the poem during the reception. In his price of modernism, Rainey interprets that civilization has made the modern world to become a ‘wasteland’ that is infertile and can’t bring forth life. The success of Rainey’s critics was achieved in rather indirect ways. He constantly maintained that the ‘Waste Land’ had no plot at all. He states that the poem does not exist in the borderland. Rainey wants to do away with new critical approaches so that the poem can only exist as a lyrical ferocity; this is evidence that he is not interested in new critical interpretations.
F.R. Leavis is another scholar, who instead of just reviewing the poem, he used advanced neoclassical ways. He also used provocative and decisive methods but remained consistent in his analysis of the poem. Leavis seriousness was displayed by his steadfast work which is one of the factors evident in how he reads and interprets the poem. Because of him, the poem was classified as one of the “high modernist” class of poems. In 1933, Leavis claimed that the Waste Land poem was vital to literary history. He has no problem with the poems fragmentation and disorganization. Instead, he sees it as a reflection of its origin. He states that in the modern society, cultures, and traditions have been mixed, therefore not organized at all; this has resulted in the breakdown of beliefs and loss of absoluteness. He sees that the disorganization of the poem mirrors a changed world; a world which has lost its innocence. Therefore, the poem reflects a lot of pessimism because Eliot was sick and also the war had brought about a lot of chaos and destruction. He sees the modern world as an urban environment that has a negative light. (Thomas Stearns, 20)
Leavis’ critical legacy has been high due to his Eliot’s poem conservative bias. He dwells so much on modernity and forgets about the literary analysis. He fixes himself to comparing objectives of the textual analysis. He focuses on analyzing Teresias who is Eliot’s character in the poem. Due to his Christian conservatism, he claimed that The Waste Land contains all historical consciousness. Unfortunately for him as a critic, only provocative sentiments stick in people’s minds. However, he is a key critic among those that discussed the chaotic form of the poem. (Thomas Stearns, 25)
Therefore, most critics perceive the poem as pessimistic due to the themes present throughout its context. The poem narrates stories of war, death, despair and barren land that cannot support life. However, some critics, notably Brooks, advocated that scholars should not limit themselves to the theme of hopelessness and desolation while analyzing the poem. Instead, they ought to examine it further to identify underlying themes. This chapter will explore how the Waste Land serves as a herald of optimism.
- S. Eliot in his poem suggests that there is still hope for a revival of the land if only people change their ways. In other words, the poet implies that from despair, sorrow and death emerges a new hope for regeneration and rebirth. The poem, therefore, presents hope as its central themes. The following chapter will examine the theme of hope and renewal in T. S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land” and how these themes give the poem an optimistic aura. Eliot integrated several literary techniques into his work in an attempt to come up with a contemplative poem representing the most crucial elements of the human being’s creation which include despair, suffering, and hope for a better future. For example, the poem has a touch of spirituality that mirrors the Christian belief of attainment of eternal life for those who remain holy. (Brooks, P, 28). Eliot uses symbolism in his poem to drive the theme of spirituality. He uses stories in the bible such as the sacred cup of Jesus and the last supper to symbolize death and rebirth. The Grail is used symbolically; the poet says that the Grail, which symbolizes rebirth, will only be attained by those with a pure heart. The Grail is, therefore, a unique symbol used by the poet to show that the wasted land is capable of revival, but its people keep on failing it (Brooks p.32). Other characteristics of the poem that adds to its positive nature include modernity, the unified shape of the poem and the literary devices used.
Modernism as a Sign of Optimism
The fact that the poem is modern is by itself something optimistic about T. S. Eliot’s the wasteland. Eliot transitioned traditional poetry into modern poetry hence giving both readers and writers hope for a better future where artists used modern styles. Eliot’s poem links the present to past events thus showing the impact that previous occurrences had on culture. By referring to historical events, Eliot gives the modern age information about preceding ages. The modernity in the poem is hence optimistic since it allows us to redefine the past and also highlights the continuation of poetic art in the current generation (Ayers, P, 43).
Traditional literature is a part of an already existing order in which new works contribute to previous ones. Eliot envisions that the past and present are related to each other; hence, there is need to reevaluate the already established works of art first when coming up with new ones. Tradition, according to Eliot, guides what current and future literature should pursue. The combination of both traditional and modern knowledge is vital to coming up with exemplary works of literature. Traditional literature assumes an already thriving intellectual body of information which can also be used by current readers and writers. Thus, modern writers can build on this ‘thriving intellectual body of information’ to come up with intriguing works of art. Traditional and contemporary literary works are therefore related to each other since they share contemporary existence. Furthermore, literature development does not take a linear path; instead, different ages of literature exist to build on already existing knowledge (Ayers, P, 46).
The past and the present literary works can be redefined to be in a cyclical manner. A previous age will have similarities with the current because they travel through the birth and rebirth stages of life. Eliot believed that history and art moved in this fashion. The cycle is apparently a way in which elements can be embraced. Artistic movements will always revisit the works of the past, and the same archetypal experiences take place all over again. (Ayers, P, 50).
In the Wasteland, the vision of the modern age emerges as an optimistic cyclical life that Eliot idealizes in his theme of rebirth. Despite the poet’s obsession with death, several gestures towards renewal are seen throughout his poem. The poem commences with a seasonal note, suggesting the cycle of death and rebirth. The subject appears to be about renewal. Eliot says that the “lilacs are brought out of the death, but they are bred, making life the central theme rather than an independent reawakening” (Ayers p.54). Eliot’s explanations deem the past and present as places of death; however, Eliot also affirms that the future is replete with vitality and hope for a new life. The modern aspect of the poem hence shows readers that there will always be a transition from old to new; this optimism is felt throughout the poem, and the process of rebirth opens a hopeful note, reaffirming life while moving away from death
Water is used in this poem as a promise of rebirth; one can either look at it in either pessimistic or optimistic manner. Water shows rebirth when the rain finally arrives at the near end of the poem. It means after all the struggles there is hope of life not ending. Eliot explains that the future will be bright after the cleansing of the sins. He further reveals that there will be a start of a new future when all the misdeeds are washed away. At the start of the poem Eliot uses April as the “cruelest month of the year.” However, what brings death, also brings life. The seasons might fluctuate from extreme lows to extreme highs but, from history, we have learned that not everything changes instead a state of stasis is maintained. In Eliot’s poem, there is hope as the world waits for a new season. (Aiken, P, 199).
The poem is not all about the inhuman actions but also rays of hope. For instance, the kingdom that fell due to sexual immorality was restored, and the king redeemed of his actions. We also see Philomena being transformed into a bird of a golden song. The poem makes a promise of forgiveness and redemption to those who repent their evil actions. The rain of divine grace symbolizes the promise to be held out to those who will repent. The poet believes that the spiritual wound we are suffering from can still be dressed to be better; spiritual and emotional enlightenment as well as making peace with our demons can help address the spiritual wound. The promise of restoration is fulfilled when the rain of divine grace is experienced. In his poem, Eliot affirms that the spiritual regeneration can come only if the voice of the thunder is heeded and that the thunder will give sympathy and control. (Strothmann p.430)
Optimism in the Unified Structure of the Poem
Another positive aspect of the poem lies in its unified structure. The prevailing school of thought is that the poem is disorganized and lacks unity. Very compelling arguments have been made to show the disunity present in the poem. Some scholars have highlighted the fact that the poem is divided into five sections; each of these sections tells a different tale hence vividly showing readers the fragmented nature of the poem. These sections also have different tones, themes, settings, and perspective thus further highlighting that the poem lacks linear narration. The fragmented nature of the poem’s chapters is the most persuasive argument against a ‘unified structure’ of the poem. Nevertheless, despite the lack of unity in the chapters, the poem is unified due to a common theme.
All the chapters in the poem have focused on similar subjects including despair, death, and regeneration. Also, all the chapters talk about a specific type of wasteland; for example, ‘a game of chess’ describes the modern wasteland while ‘the fire sermon’ narrates the wasteland of the Fisher King. Despair is the most common theme in the poem since it appears severally in each chapter. For instance, in chapter one ‘burial of the dead’ readers learn of the gloomy nature of the people in the wasteland. Also, the hyacinth garden fails to thrive hence showcasing the despair present in society. The other chapters also present the topic of despair hence supporting the idea of a ‘unified structure’ of the poem.
Chapter two ‘a game of chess,’ for instance, gives the story of the people in the modern wasteland; these people lack emotional judgment since city life has disassociated them from their feelings. These people cannot, therefore, take part in activities such as social interaction that require proper emotional judgment. Chapter three ‘the fire sermon’ narrates on the desolate land of the Fisher King. The land is in desperate need of salvation hence further highlighting the theme of despair. The fourth chapter ‘Death by Water’ gives the story of a person who drowns. The final chapter ‘what the thunder said’ highlights more death as well as the lack of rain in the wasteland. Thus, it is evident that the theme of despair unites the poem.
The despair present in the wasteland has led to a sharp desire for salvation. Eliot blames the despair on the lack of spirituality as well as other harmful factors such as individualism in modern society. Salvation is, therefore, another dominant theme throughout the poem that serves as a contributor to the ‘unified shape’ of the poem. People in the different wastelands all crave for a new and better beginning. Those in the Biblical wasteland long for a savior and eternal life after death while those in the modern wasteland crave for financial freedom and better social relationships. Eliot, therefore, incorporated different symbols for hope into the poem; the dark clouds in ‘what the thunder said,’ for instance, symbolize hope for rain. In turn, rain will quench the land and bring about regeneration. Also, Eliot alludes to the resurrection of Jesus to give people hope despite the despair they might be experiencing.
Other unifying aspects of the poem include shared literary techniques and the appearance of different characters in separate chapters of the poem. For instance, Madame Sosostris’ is mentioned in two chapters of the poem hence suggesting that the two chapters are related. Other than that, the chapters share several literary techniques including symbolism, allusion, and fragmentation. Fragmentation is evident since the poet continually shifts scenes and voices. Fragmentation might be labeled as the reason why the poem lacks a unified structure; however, the poet used the technique deliberately to create the mood he wanted among his audience. Furthermore, the technique is a uniting factor in the poem since it has been used throughout.
Eliot used myths and symbolism to convey the profound messages ingrained into the poem. The myth of the quest for the Holy Grail has been used to signify the search for redemption; the Grail is by itself a symbol of death and rebirth as was the case in Jesus’ story. Myth has it that only the pure of heart can find the Grail; in Eliot’s version of the Grail myth, a wasteland is waiting for a miraculous revival that depends on finding the Grail. Other myths used include that of Tiresias, the vegetation myth, the legend of Phlebas, Philomena and the Phoenician. These myths play a symbolic role in the poem; most of them were used to facilitate understanding of the situation in contemporary society. Each myth is compared to different issues affecting modern society; for instance, the Philomena myth highlights the sexual immorality plaguing modern society.
Eliot has also used allusion throughout the poem hence giving it a unified structure. Eliot alludes to different sources including works by other writers such as Shakespeare. He also alludes to religious texts including the Bible and the writings of Buddha. The allusion technique is used in all the chapters of the poem thus exhibiting the similarities between the different sections of the poem; this vividly shows unity. More to this, Eliot draws his allusions from different cultures and religions; in doing so, he gave the poem a universal ambiance. The universal tenor of the poem is another unifying characteristic of the poem’s chapters.
Other scholars have suggested that the different chapters of the poem use varying rhymes and rhythms; this is another indicator that the poem has a unified shape. Rhymes and rhythm were used to give the poem a musical pattern. Using music and literature simultaneously was a common practice among French writers. In fact, Charles Baudelaire, a French poet who influenced Eliot’s poetry, confirmed that the wasteland contained alternating tones due to the reference made to other writers such as Dante and Shakespeare. Also, Eliot used many characters in the poem to narrate different stories and explain specific concepts such as the decline of spirituality and culture. The alternation between the multiple sets of voices and the transition between the experiences of different persona give the poem a rhythm resembling a musical pattern. Most readers will not perceive the rhythm hence they end up viewing the poem as a single utterance. It is crucial that such readers agree that the rhythm observed in the poem’s verses is another uniting factor of the poem as a whole.
The poem by Eliot is therefore optimistic because it has a unified structure rather than a fragmented one as most people think. Fragmentation evokes a mood of confusion due to lack of understanding; also, it highlights that characters in the poem are in a constant search for peace given the disorganization present in the world. Nonetheless, multiple pieces of evidence exist to emphasize that the poem has a unified structure. The poem is united due to a common theme, the use of similar literary techniques and rhythm throughout the verses. The unified shape of the poem is indicative of optimism since it suggests that unity is possible despite the broken nature of society.
Optimism as Highlighted by the Literary Devices
Eliot’s use of allusion is crucial to his poem’s structure and theme of rebirth and restoration. Allusions in the Waste Land attract lots of attention since they provide the poem’s internal structure. The first and most apparent allusion is derived from the poem’s title ‘The Wasteland.’ There are several wastelands in Eliot’s poem; some of them include the sexual wasteland, the biblical wasteland, King Fisher’s wasteland, the barren desert away from the city and the modern wasteland. The sexual wasteland is represented by the story of Oedipus’ complexity of sex (Iman, P.4). Taboo sexual practices such as sex between mother and son are described in the story. These immoral sexual practices took place in the land of King Oedipus of Thebes. The lack of purpose for sex characterizes the sexual wasteland; people have robed sex of its original purpose and misused it hence creating a sexual wasteland. The second Wasteland is the Biblical one; the loss of spirituality characterizes this wasteland. Eliot blames the loss of spirituality to other negative occurrences such as rampant wars and sexual immorality present in the modern world. King Fisher’s land is the third Wasteland; the King lost the ability to bear children due to immorality. His land is therefore barren and without hope for a future since the king is sterile and hence he cannot father a generation to enable the continuation of his kingdom. The desert, on the other hand, lacks rain and vegetation thus it cannot support life. The last Waste Land is the modern world; the modern world is represented by the city center which is replete with lust and other misdeeds of the contemporary society.
However, at the end of every waste land’s description, the poet suggests that there is a ray of hope. For instance, the kingdom that fell due to sexual immorality was restored, and the king redeemed of his actions. (Iman, P.9). We also see Philomena being transformed into a bird of a golden song. In essence, the poem gives the message of hope for restoration despite the suffering that the characters are going through inside the different wastelands. For those in the sexual wasteland, Eliot suggests revival through penance while those in the barren dessert are promised rain. Those in the biblical wasteland are pledged to eternal life after death while those in the modern wasteland are told that civilization always falls but are reborn after being refined through getting rid of the evil elements that brought the decay. Eliot also gives the three “DA’S” which include, Datta, Daydhvam, and Damyata as solutions of the modern civilization’s ruin and chaos. The “DA’S” speak of compassion and peace to avoid further decaying of the wasteland.
Further, the title “The Fire Sermon” is allusive and originates from the Buddha Sermon. The section explores the subjects of sex and lust in the modern society. The poet talks about the rape of the three daughters of River Thames in an endeavor to drive the themes of sex and lust in urban culture. Lines 177 and 178 of the section talk about the pollution of the river; this is symbolic of the spiritual degeneration of the modern world (Iman, P.17). The spiritual degeneration, in turn, caused moral decay and an increase in lust and futile sex.
“Tiresias” is another allusion gotten from Sophocles’ Oedipus; in the story, a sailor was brought home from the sea as a form of restoration. The allusion, therefore, enhances the theme of death and restoration. Other examples of allusion that can be found in the poem include the one in lines 307 and 309 alluding to St Augustine’s confession and the one in Line 308 that mentions “burning” several times as an allusion from Lord Buddha’s Fire Sermon. St Augustine, in his confession, prayed to God that he be saved from lust (Iman p.32); thus, an allusion to St Augustine’s confession gives readers hope that the sin of sex and lust can be evaded if we all prayed to God. The reference to Lord Buddha’s Fire Sermon, on the other hand, is suggestive that the world is burning in the fire of hatred and sin. Fire, in this case, can, however, be viewed as a form of restoration. In the story of Dante, the fire was used to refine and purify (Abdul p.3). Fire is thus symbolic of hope that despite the catastrophes that people experience.
Allusion and symbolism are hence the main techniques used in the poem to drive the theme of hope and restoration. Eliot uses allusion to highlight the stupidity and immorality that is prevalent in the wasteland. However, he alludes to myths and stories which always end positively hence giving readers the feeling of hope despite the rotting modern world. The symbols used also signify hope for a better future devoid of the suffering in the wasteland. For instance, water and fire symbolize purification while the grail symbolizes restoration, rebirth, and resurrection.
Optimism in the Waste Land
Optimism in the poem is therefore indicated by literary devices used, the themes in the poem as well as other characteristics of the poetry including modernity and a unified structure. Rebirth is one of the recurring themes in the ‘Waste Land’ poem. The poet used several myths to bring out the theme of rebirth. The first myth is the legendary quest for the Holy Grail by King Arthur and his subjects. Christians easily relate to this myth since the Grail is the cup that Jesus used during the last supper with his disciples. According to the legend, the Grail has the power to heal anybody who finds it; however, it can only be seen by those who have a pure heart. The myth further says that the original Grail mysteriously disappeared and many knights lost their lives as they searched for it. Some people claimed that they sometimes saw the Grail floating in the sky; it was only seen by the Knights that lived a pure life. Thus the Grail symbolizes the miraculous and medicinal properties that we obtain from living a chaste life. The myth of the Grail is also connected to fertility since it is believed that the cup contained the symbols representing man and woman. In summary, Eliot used the myth of the Grail to reveal hope and restoration of only those that live a pure life.
The Fisher King and his desolate land is the second myth that shows how Eliot’s poem is a herald for optimism. Eliot used myths to convey his message and ideas with fewer words and therefore, The Fisher King is an epic myth used in The Wasteland poem. The myth says that in the adventure journey, Parsifal and Quester and his fellow adventurers arrived in a land ruled by a Prince called Fisher King. This Fisher King’s land was one of the lands that earlier worshiped the Grail. However, during their arrival, the worship of the Grail was vanishing. The temple stood there broken and dilapidated as a painful memorial of the worship that had ceased to exist. The impotent King reflected the infertility present in the land; the impotence of the king and the infertility of the land was attributed to declining spirituality since people had stopped worshiping the Grail. The King, however, anticipated that, despite his illness, one day a knight with a pure soul would come to their rescue. He had hoped that this knight would march in the kingdom, answer all his questions and save them from their problems by recovering the Grail. The washing ritual, according to the king’s expectations, would purge it and return its health. The people of this land also had hope for the King’s rebirth which would, in turn, bring rains that gave life and the infertile kingdom would once again enjoy fertility. The myth of The Fisher King also connected the spiritual sterility with the contemporary society’s decay. The sick king represents the sick humanity, and the sickness is as a result of the sexual perversion of the king. Sex has been denied its primary purpose of giving life. The sexual perversion and the fact that sex has been degraded to mere animal copulation have led to spiritual death; this, however, is not the end since penance and self-discipline can recover spirituality. (Rabhadiya, 2014)
Tiresias is connected to the story of Oedipus and Thebes. He is used by Eliot in his poem as a classical legend and a central figure of a Waste Land to drive the concept of being optimistic. Let us first discuss the story of Oedipus and see how it is connected to that of Tiresias. Tiresias is used in the poem for two purposes; first to universalize and secondly to complicate the mythical frame of the poem. Oedipus killed his father and married his mother. The King summoned Tiresias, who was a blind prophet, to consult him regarding the misfortunes; Tiresia told him the shocking truth that he was the cause of all the misfortunes. The King was driven to accept the horrible truth. The king was compelled to self-exile and prolonged penance for his land to enjoy illumination and spiritual calm. Tiresias was blind and bi-sexual but had a gift of prophecy and immortality. Two stories explain the conditions of this prophet. The first story says that Tiresias in his youth saw the nudity of goddess Athena while in a pond. The goddess then struck him blind. His sight was later bestowed because his mother was a friend of the goddess. In the second story, Tiresias saw two snakes copulating, and the snake turned him into a woman. Juno and Love later questioned him as to whether the man was more passionate than the woman. He confirmed that the woman was more passionate which angered Juno and he struck him blind. Love compensated him by bestowing him the gift of prophecy and mortality. The myth of Tiresias, therefore, suggests that even the gods give people a second chance. Tiresias, instead of being struck dead, was blinded and also bestowed the gift of prophecy after angering the gods. Tiresias was also sent to Oedipus to inform him of his mistakes. Oedipus receives the news and decides to repent. Thus the myth suggests that people should be optimistic since even the gods give people a second chance to correct bad behavior; the Waste Land is hence not doomed to suffer forever (Rabhadiya, 2014).
. Vegetation and fertility myths were used to symbolize life and rebirth of the suffering people in the poem. The poet talks of the rebirth coming from a buried corpse. Eliot was studying “Golden Bough” and “From Ritual to Romance” during the time he wrote the poem. These two books influenced Eliot to believe that ‘Birth-Death-Rebirth’ was a definite process. Thus, in the poem Eliot connects winter to death and spring to rebirth; the lands regain fertility during spring after the rains fall and lose their fertility during summer. Some vegetation ceremonies and rituals were performed to prove this process of ‘Birth-Death-Rebirth.’ For instance, Eliot narrates that in Egypt the god of vegetation, known as Osiris was buried in the earth when there was lack of corn; the seeds sprouted after the death of the vegetation god. Sprouting of the grains symbolizes the rebirth of the god. The myth hence suggests that as a result of s spiritual death, there is hope of spiritual regeneration. The myth also strengthens the idea of the ‘Birth-Death-Rebirth’ cycle. This recurrent process is well understood today by Christians due to the story of the birth of Jesus Christ, how he suffered, died and resurrected to give hope and restoration. The seasons as used in the poem also represents birth-rebirth-birth as a recurring process. Spring represents birth, the rain symbolizes spiritual fertility, and winter represents death while drought represents spiritual death.
Other than the myths, the poet also uses imagery to show optimism in his poem. For instance, water and fire are used as symbols of purification and rebirth. Water is used to symbolize death and life. ‘Waste Land’ is dying from lack of water while the drowning sailor is dying because of too much water. In the final parts of the poem, water is seen as an essential commodity where the poet focuses on lack of water and also on many rocks on the sandy roads (Audhuy, P, 120). Water is used to represent the fertility of which the Waste Land is deprived. The line that says the “spring rain” comes to bring new life to the landscape is a representation of hope. Dryness of the Waste Land due to lack of water shows the spiritual infertility of the modern world. When the rain falls, the land will receive fertility once again (Rabhadiya, 2014). Apart from highlighting a hellish experience, fire is also used to represent redemption and purification. Restoration through fire is shown in the line that says Dante hid in the fire that refines him. The redemption of Dante through fire gives us hope that despite the catastrophes we are going through, there is hope.
In essence, the wasteland was a successful work of literature carrying within it several themes of issues affecting the modern world. Some of the themes include sexual immorality, death, despair, and the desire for salvation. Most critics have therefore argued that the poem is melancholic and has a pessimistic outlook on the world. While this is probably true, the poem also carries several hidden messages of hope despite the despair present in the world. As Cleanth Brooks suggested, it is not enough to analyze the theme of desolation and despair in the wasteland; instead, readers should be open-minded to avoid sticking too close to the poem’s surface. A keener look into the poem will reveal that the poem incorporated several symbols of hope even though the poem is pessimistic and melancholic for the most part.
All the mythical and biblical allusions, as well as other literary devices, used to give a real image of the chaos intertwining modern Europe and the contemporary world. They show the link between past and present events where people have always followed a birth-death-rebirth cycle. Eliot’s writing hence contributes to the theme of rebirth and redemption. Eliot’s allusive and mythical techniques are far-reaching in their implications. In using them, Eliot established a relationship between the present and the past. This relationship enabled the poet to forecast the future of modern man and modern civilization. If no intervention is put in place, modern man and civilization will die; this has happened several times in the past to large cities such as Athens. Modern man can attain deliverance by acting upon the message of Thunder which is to give, sympathize and control. (Audhuy, P, 190). The problem is that even with an intervention in place, modern civilization will still experience death since it is part of the regular cycle of the world. However, Eliot suggests that death has always been a part of life; death gives way to new beginnings and a chance to become better. Therefore, the message of hope and remaining optimistic runs throughout the poem’s entirety if only readers open their eyes to the symbols and allusions signifying hope and optimism.
The Waste Land is T.S. Eliot’s masterpiece affirming readers that there is light at the end of the tunnel. The poet uses different themes and techniques to develop his message and main points. Eliot’s poem is constructed in such a way that the reader understands it as a social masterpiece that throws a ray of light to the modern civilization’s problems. The poet is not blind to the vanished glory of the past. Neither is he a romanticist or an escapist of the present; He is a realist who does not believe that the past was beautiful and glorious. At the same time, he is not a pessimist instead he gives hope that stabilizes the Wasteland.
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
Overall the research was a success because of the vast amount of information available on the internet and from books by different authors. A lot has been written about the wasteland since its publication hence it was easy getting the necessary information to perform the analysis and answer the research questions posed in the dissertation. The primary purpose of the paper was to examine the theme of hope vs. despair in Eliot’s poem. Several well-known critics have demonstrated that the poem is a melancholic representation of a degenerated world. However, in my view, the poem represents the two most essential elements of life which are birth and rebirth. So the dissertation also sought to show how Eliot tries to say that from death, sorrow and despair emerge hope for rebirth and resurrection. At first glance, readers will perceive a senseless, gloomy world that is incapable of regeneration. Nonetheless, Eliot, by depicting such images of a desolate world, conveys the message of hope and a promise of new life. Therefore, the scope of the research carried out in this dissertation was limited to highlighting how the poem serves as an excellent omen of rebirth and regeneration.
The method used was a systemic qualitative review of literature; a thorough analysis of such literature revealed several characteristics of the poem hence guiding the answering of the research questions. The dissertation was qualitative, so a literature review was the best method to retrieve the required information. Nonetheless, the complex nature of the research questions demanded a thorough and sophisticated review of the literature. A rigorous literature review was the only way through which a reliable research study would be achieved. The literature review performed in this dissertation helped identify information relevant to the survey hence allowing the attainment of the objectives of the research.
The review of literature performed involved more than just summarizing the identified texts. It comprised of a complicated process of interpretation of each document and a synthesis of the information to establish how it was related to the research questions being investigated. The literature review, therefore, provided a logically presented argument based on extensive reading and understanding of different texts. The arguments presented offered convincing cases that helped answer the research questions posed in the study. In essence, the literature review involved the breaking down of the text contained in the identified books into its constituent parts; these parts were then assembled to give readers a holistic understanding of the message contained in the book. The literature review was, therefore, the most appropriate technique for use in the dissertation.
Several books, as well as internet sources and peer-reviewed articles, were reviewed. The primary source, however, was Eliot’s poem ‘The Waste Land.’ The poem by T. S. Eliot was the primary source used in this dissertation hence it was cited severally throughout the document. Secondary sources of information included ‘The Annotated Waste Land with Eliot’s Contemporary Prose’ by Lawrence Rainy, “The Waste Land”: Modernism and the Limits of Interpretation by Brooker and Bentley and The Waste Land by Michael North. Several internet resources, as well as peer-reviewed articles from different authors, were also used in the literature review.
The sources of information were analysed based on specific topics including despair, desolation, fragmentation, regeneration, and optimism. The analysis also explored the idea of the poem’s underlying structure including the stylistic devices used as well as the themes explored. A ‘within-study’ analysis was used to perform an in-depth analysis of each article. The within-study analysis was comprehensive and covered concepts such as the techniques used to develop the writing. A ‘between-study’ analysis was later performed to compare the findings from the different sources of information used. The literature review was organized into multiple chapters where each chapter explained in detail specific topics that were related to the general theme of the dissertation. The rationale behind a multiple-chapter literature review was to ascertain comprehensive research that followed the logic of inquiry leading to the answers to the research question.
Analysis of the Results from the Literature Review
The information obtained from the sources used revealed several characteristics of the poem that contributed to the theme of hope vs. despair. We found several other themes as well as stylistic devices emphasizing both hope and despair within the wasteland. The views of critics were also identified and analysed to show the theme of hope vs. despair. It was also established that the poem was modern hence highlighting another optimistic aspect of this work of literature by T. S. Eliot. The following section highlights the results obtained from the literature review.
The literature review revealed that the term wasteland was symbolic and represented the theme of despair. Eliot used the term wasteland to refer to a generation of people living in different places; these people have lost their ability to contribute towards life hence leading to an infertile civilization. Several wastelands were described in the poem; they included the Biblical wasteland, the sexual wasteland, the wasteland of the Fisher King, the modern wasteland and the barren wasteland away from the city centre. These wastelands are similar in that the people are no longer able or willing to contribute towards the continuation of life. As a result, life has lost meaning and civilization is slowly decaying. The term ‘wasteland’ therefore suggests the theme of despair from the beginning to the end of the poem.
Further review of the literature revealed that Eliot wrote the poem during a time he was experiencing difficulties in life; also the period was just after the First World War. Hence the psychologically turbulent atmosphere that the poet was in could have influenced him to convey messages of despair in the poem. The difficulties Eliot was facing can be used to explain the mood as well as the disparate juxtapositions and imagism used in the poem.
On another note, Eliot referred severally to other works of literature published in the past. He referred to texts speaking about war and other narrating tales of other broken worlds. Eliot connects these past works of literature to the events occurring in present times. For instance, an allusion to past wars serves to explain the current war taking place in Europe. The tales of other broken worlds, on the other hand, helps to explain the current stature of the modern world which is desolate and fragmented. The poem, therefore, lacks linear narration since the author shifts from one tale to the next so often; critics have claimed that the fragmented nature of the poem often limits the ability to make an authentic interpretation. However, according to Eliot, readers gain an understanding of the poetry through distance because they have a temporal advantage over the author; Eliot’s time is historical to readers today hence contemporary readers can understand the relationship between past and present events. Therefore, the fragmented nature of the poem including the use of past and present information, different places, times and classes of people act as mutual support to enable the passing of the poet’s message (McGuirk).
Other critics have argued that the future-oriented aspect of the poem allows for multiple interpretations hence causing ambiguity. Interpretation will differ since scholars have different approaches while analysing the poem. One can choose to interpret the poem by expanding on the thoughts presented and giving a personal opinion. One can also choose to stick to a historical approach where they examine the poem based on the setting when it was written. Despite what critics say, interpreting the poem is a complex task since the poem lacks linear narration and thematic clarity. This lack of linear description and thematic clarity was, however, Eliot’s intention perhaps to leave room for redemption which is another central theme in the poem.
An analysis of the primary source of information ‘the wasteland’ poem revealed a lot about its structure as well as the themes present and literary devices used. The poem was divided into five chapters; the first part of the poem, however, was an epigraph and a dedication to Ezra Pound who helped Eliot in the writing of the poem. Each section of the poem played an important role that contributed to the overall theme carried in the poems quintessence. The dedication, for instance, praises Ezra Pound as well as the Troubadour poets who are famed for their contributions to high poetic art. By dedicating the poem to the Troubadour poets, Eliot indicates that the wasteland is a refined poem worthy of comparison to the works by the Troubadour poets. The epigraph, on the other hand, evokes the feeling of weariness that is present in modern society. The epigraph also highlights regeneration through death; therefore, the theme of hope and despair become evident from the title as well as the initial pages of the poem.
The other chapters of the poem also unveiled more characteristics contributing to the theme of Hope vs. Despair. The first chapter, for instance, is highly fragmented hence showcasing the incoherence of modern social structures. This chapter also explains the reason for the despair present in the wasteland; people are desperate since they have forgotten their culture. The poet goes ahead and introduces water as a symbol of renewal within the first chapter of the poem. He does this by alluding to the story of Madame Sosostris who has forgotten that water was once used for renewal. The second chapter introduces the modern wasteland; the style reflected in this chapter is that of dissociating feeling from their contiguity. So much emotion has been dissociated from the chapter especially in lines 111-137 where the poet used disembodies voices that sound as if close to a breakdown. The disembodied voices were used to show how people in the modern wasteland are dissociated from their emotions hence preventing them from engaging in intensely felt experiences such as social interaction. Because feelings are unfelt, the wasteland is rough on the people thus only the strong can survive; in other words, everybody is desperate for a revival. The allusion to the myth of Philomela further supports the desperation present in the land. The symbol of water is also mentioned in chapter two to display the subject of hope and renewal.
The third chapter of the poem had a wide range of themes and symbols giving away the theme of hope and despair. The chapter narrates the tale of the Fisher King’s desolate land. The main literary technique used at the core of this chapter is an allusion. The poet alludes to the legendary quest for the Holy Grail. The Grail is symbolic of spiritual renewal which is what the Fisher King’s land needs for restoration. The poet also alludes to the myth of Tiresias to further showcase the desolate nature of the wasteland. Themes brought to light in this chapter of the poem include desolation and hope for renewal through spiritual restoration by the grail.
The fourth chapter, ‘death by water,’ provides a proper demonstration of the theme of redemption; the water here is symbolic of purification. Hence the person who died through the water was purified. There is a peaceful mood after the death even though death apparently brings grief; this shows that death by water was not a means to an end but rather a method of renewal. The theme of redemption is supported in another section of the chapter which describes a figure in a post-resurrection stature resembling that of Christ. Eliot was probably trying to pass the message that the person who drowned has resurrected having been purified by death and water. The final chapter of the poem provides more allusion to different texts including Hindu and Christian religious texts. Death as a theme is prevalent throughout the verses of the chapter. However, the poet narrates that dark clouds appear hence giving the people hope for rain. The chapter also stresses on Eastern philosophy which tells people to have the compassion to help them restore the wasteland to its former glory. Thus, it is evident that the themes of hope and despair are intertwined throughout the poem’s context.
Further analysis of the basic structure of the poem revealed that it belongs to the modernist movement of poetry. In fact, the poem is praised as the hugest contributor to modern poetry. The poet has used different characters, themes and literary techniques which all contribute to the modernist aspect of the poem. One of the most evident methods woven into the poems very fabric is that of fragmentation. Eliot used several techniques as well as characters to show fragmentation. For example, he used Phlebas as the Phoenician, Madame Sosostris as the fortune teller and an ancient sailor who in this poem is seen to drown and many other characters that are seen to weave in and out without any kind of relations, which proves the disorganisation of the poem. The poem has also alluded to different myths and biblical texts; the wide use of allusion is another main characteristic of modern poems. Use of allusions in The Waste Land is more evident than any other poems of its time (Gish p.50).
Modern poems were characterized based on stylistic experimentations as well as their open-minded nature when exploring different themes. Eliot experimented with different styles and even invented new ones that had not been used by other poets before. Eliot also incorporated controversial themes into his poem; traditional poets were often limited in regards to the subjects they could explore. Themes included in Eliot’s poetry included that of memories of the past, death, changing seasons, rebirth, water, religion, love, lust and sexuality, and the broken psyche of humanity. These themes are inter-related and work together to convey the overall message of the poet which is hope despite the despair present in contemporary society. Literary devices used included allusion, metaphors, symbolism, voices, imagery, repetition, monologue, and juxtapositions of the past and the present.
“The Waste Land”: Modernism and the Limits of Interpretation by Brooker and Bentley disclosed that Eliot’s text is self-limiting. Eliot virtually eliminated transitions to call for the attention of readers as they read his poem. According to Brooks, the poem lacked the signals that transition readers from one stanza to another, therefore the reader has to be conscious while reading the poem since it lacks the traditional texts and transitions that reveal how parts are related. Brook also highlights that readers should feel free to analyse and interpret the poem in the way they deemed as the most suitable. Brooks asserts interpretation should not be limited; nonetheless, he also gave principles that scholars should follow when interpreting the poem. The first principle states that analysis has to take into account the systematic nature of judgment and that every judgment involves context that complicates the relations of parts or parts of a whole. Brooks agreed that no reader, despite the energy and competence, can reconstruct Eliot’s mind. However, the reader can learn something from his mind and use boundaries in the process of reading without preventing misreading. Brooks and Bentley’s second principle states that the readers have to differentiate between external and internal interpretations. Internal interpretation is the one made by a character in the poem itself while external is the one made by the reader.
Brooker and Bentley in their critic of the poem passed information that Eliot used allusion extensively hence leading to fragmentation of the poem. Traditional poets tended to view things holistically hence most critics were displeased with the fragmented nature of the poem. Nonetheless, fragmentation became part of modern poetry. Eliot used fragmentation to show the broken nature of the world. The images and symbols in the wasteland deform, melt and overlap to give the poem a fragmented outlook. The poet also used allusions and juxtapositions of contemporary London to further show the broken nature of the modern city. Allusion to the story of the King Fisher unveils sexual sin as the cause of suffering in the wasteland. In essence, Brooks examines the theme of good and evil in Eliot’s poetry. Brooks, at the end of his essay, concluded by describing that the poem has unity despite the fragmentation within its structure. Brooks implies that history serves as a uniting factor in the poem, since events often re-occur.
While most critics acknowledged that the poem by Eliot was a masterpiece, The Annotated Waste Land with Eliot’s Contemporary Prose” by Lawrence Rainey criticised it for being complicated and unclear to most readers. Some of the allusions, for instance, are hard to understand for a majority of readers. Rainey also criticizes the poem since it was published in several editions; some of the editions contained corrections that adversely affected the flow of the poem (Rainey 48). For instance there were spelling errors that might have led to a misinterpretation of the message. Apart from these errors, the different versions of the poem lacked consistency due to punctuation mistakes and failure to cite titles. These mistakes were left unnoticed for a very long time. Eliot did not bother to proofread his work (Rainey 51). Also, it is worth noting the lineation of the poem was not consistent with the different versions.
Several other critics have also criticized the editing of the poem. Ezra Pound did much of the editing which led to the complete erasure of huge parts of the poem. Pound persuaded Eliot to do away with huge chunks of the poem that were meant to be put in different segments of the poem. Regardless, Eliot’s poem was still prolonged and still holds the record of one of the longest poem ever written. Eliot was worried that erasure of the said parts would lead the poem to lose scheme; this is exactly what happened. The poem lost several of its main ideas and what remained was a poem without form or genre. David Chinitz even asserted that the poem would be more appealing had Eliot published his original poem without editorial modifications by Pound.
The research was therefore a success since it helped meet all the objectives of the study. For instance, we evaluated how T.S. Eliot used optimism and pessimism in the poem The Waste Land. We were also able to demonstrate how the themes of sorrow and death in the poem signify resurrection and re-birth. Further, our analysis determined how the gloomy and fragmented representation of the wasteland is indeed an underlying message of hope through regeneration and rebirth. Also, we established how the historical allusions and myths used in the poem enhance the themes of rebirth and restoration. In doing so, the dissertation demonstrated how, in its essence, The Waste Land is indicative of optimism.
